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•V-ii' 


ZOROASTRIAN  THEOLOGY 


ZOROASTRIAN  THEOLOGY 


From  the  Earliest  Times 
to  the  Present  Day 


BY 


y 


MANECKJI  NUSSERVANJI  DHALLA,  Ph.D. 

High  Priest  of  the  Parsis  of  Northwestern  India 


NEW   YORK 

1914 


^0 

THE  IRANIAN  SCHOLARS 

OF  THE  WEST 

PAST  AND  PRESENT 


PREFACE 

Since  the  year  1771,  when  that  worthy  pioneer  of  romantic 
renown  in  Iranian  studies,  Anquetil  du  Perron,  pubHshed  his 
three  volumes  containing  the  first  European  translation  of  the 
Avesta,  or  Sacred  Book  of  Zoroaster,  great  strides  forward 
have  been  made  in  the  West  in  the  realm  of  Iranian  research. 
The  field  is  now  replete  with  the  lasting  monuments  of  Western 
scholarship,  whether  in  the  department  of  standard  editions  of 
the  sacred  texts  or  the  compilation  of  grammars  and  dictionaries, 
or  again  in  the  preparation  of  scientific  translations  as  well  as 
in  making  exegetical  and  philological  researches.  The  service 
that  these  scholars  have  thus  rendered  to  the  Parsis  is  greater 
than  can  ever  be  expressed.  By  way  of  recording  some  expres- 
sion, however  inadequate,  of  the  debt  of  gratitude  that  my  com- 
munity owes  to  them,  I  have  inscribed  this  work  to  the  Iranian 
scholars  of  the  West,  both  past  and  present.  Unto  those  who 
have  passed  away  let  the  reward  be  vahishtem  ahum  ashaounam 
raochanghem  vlspo-khvdthrem,  '  the  shining,  all-happy  paradise 
of  the  righteous,'  and  may  the  noble  band  of  workers  who  are 
still  living  be  blessed  with  vohu-jiti  us-jiti  dareghem-jiti,  '  good 
life,  happy  life,  and  long  life.' 

It  is  through  the  Western  scholars  that  the  science  of  com- 
parative philology,  of  scholarship  based  on  scientific  principles, 
and  the  spirit  of  research  work  have  reached  the  Parsis.  If  the 
present  work  exhibits  any  methodic  treatment  on  the  lines  of 
Western  scholarship,  it  is  due  to  the  inspiring  influence  and 
scientific  training  of  my  former  teacher  and  always  friend.  Pro- 
fessor A.  V.  Williams  Jackson  of  Columbia  University,  who 
combines  in  his  person  the  best  elements  of  Iranian  scholarship 
and  the  greatest  zeal  for  Zoroastrian  researches.  I  am  grateful 
to  him  for  the  cordial  response  with  which  he  has  placed  his  time 
at  my  disposal  and  read  over  the  entire  manuscript  before  it 
went  to  the  press.  His  scholarly  criticism  has  been  of  great  value 
to  me  for  the  interpretation  and  elucidation  of  the  various  prob- 
lems that  defy  easy  solution.     Pleasant  indeed  it  was  to  have  an 

vii 


VIU 


PREFACE 


Opportunity  of  supplementing  my  previous  three  years  of  work 
at  Columbia  University  under  his  ^wrwship,  by  an  added  period 
of  seven  more  months  of  scholarly  association  with  him  this  year, 
at  my  Alma  Mater  again,  that  have  been  months  of  renewed 
enlightenment  and  inspiration. 

I  am  indebted  to  Dr.  Charles  J.  Ogden  who,  besides  read- 
ing my  book  in  manuscript  and  revising  the  proofsheets,  has 
helped  me  in  the  citation  of  classical  references,  and  favoured 
me  with  valuable  suggestions. 

I  wish  to  express  my  sincere  thanks  to  Dr.  George  C.  O.  Haas, 
who,  as  in  the  case  of  my  previous  work,  has  carefully  read  the 
proofsheets  as  they  passed  through  the  press,  and  has  given  his 
critical  advice  in  matters  typographical. 

M.  N.  Dhalla. 
New  York, 
December  15,  1914. 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Preface vii 

Bibliography xxi 

Abbreviations xxvii 

Introduction xxix 

PRE-GATHIC  PERIOD 
From  the  earliest  times  to  about  looo  b.c. 

CHAPTER 

I.  The  Primitive  Faith  of  Iran 3 

Pre-Gathic  or  prehistoric  period — The  cleavage  in  the  Aryan 
■  group — The  Aryan  settlers  of  Iran — Presumable  character- 
istics of  their  religion — Worship  of  the  personifications  of 
nature  and  other  heavenly  beings — Designations  of  the  divini- 
ties— Kings  and  heroes  pay  homage  unto  the  divinities — Form 
of  sacrifice — The  Iranians  dethrone  '  daeva '  from  the  pedes- 
tal of  divinity. 

THE  GATHIC  PERIOD 
About  1000  B.C. 

II.  ZOROASTRIANISM  IN  ItS  EaRLY  MISSIONARY  StAGE         .  II 

Zarathushtra  gives  Mazda's  message  to  mankind — The  pros- 
elytizing zeal  of  the  crusaders — Zarathushtra  speaks  of  his 
faith  in  terms  of  a  universal  religion. 

III.  ZOROASTRIANISM  IN  THE  GaTHAS      .  .  .  .  .  14 

The  Gathas,  or  the  Zoroastrian  psalms— The  ethics  of  the 
Gathas— Phases  of  the  prehistoric  Indo-Iranian  cult  regard- 
ing which  the  Gathas  are  silent. 

IV.    Ahura  Mazda i^, 

Ahura  Mazda  is  the  name  of  the  supreme  godhead  of  Zoro- 
astrianism— Ahura  Mazda  is  the  Being  par-excellence— 
Ahura  Mazda  is  a  spirit— Ahura  Mazda  is  the  creator— Ahura 
Mazda  is  the  lord  of  wisdom— Zarathushtra  seeks  communion 
with  Ahura  Mazda,  and  finds  it— Ahura  Mazda  is  the  refuge 
of  Zarathushtra  in  his  trials— Ahura  Mazda  has  ordamed 
that  virtue  is  its  own  reward,  and  vice  its  own  retribution — 
The  Holy  Spirit  of  Ahura  Mazda. 

ix 


X  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

V.  Mazda's  Ministering  Angels 26 

Amesha  Spentas  in  the  making — Vohu  Manah — The  premier 
spirit  in  the  divine  household — Genius  of  high  thinking  and 
wisdom — Zarathushtra  exhorts  his  followers  to  seek  Vohu 
Manah's  grace — Vohu  Manah's  boons — Vohu  Manah  as  the 
genius  of  cattle — Asha — The  impersonation  of  righteous- 
ness— Zarathushtra  is  singled  out  to  communicate  the  Law 
of  Righteousness  to  humanity — The  prophet  guides  mankind 
to  Asha's  righteousness — Righteousness  is  the  pivot  around 
which  the  ethics  of  Zarathushtra  revolve — The  discipline  of 
the  individual  in  righteousness — To  further  righteousness  is 
only  half  the  duty;  to  combat  wickedness  is  the  other  half — 
On  the  material  side  fire  is  consecrated  to  Asha — Khshathra 
— The  Divine  Kingdom  of  Ahura  Mazda — Armaiti — The  per- 
sonified female  abstraction  of  devotion — Devotion  is  indis- 
pensable to  religious  life — Haurvatat  and  Ameretat — Dual 
divinities  of  perfection  and  immortality — Water  and  plants 
are  consecrated  to  Haurvatat  and  Ameretat — Sraosha — The 
angel  of  religious  obedience — Atar — The  fire  cult — Ashi — 
She  personifies  sanctity — Geush  Tashan  and  Geush  Urvan — 
The    spirits    of   the   animal    life,   or   of   the   universe. 

VI.  Evil 46 

The  imperfect  side  of  existence — Zarathushtra  stigmatizes 
evil  as  evil — Angra  Mainyu — The  Evil  Spirit  and  his  char- 
acteristics— Daevas — The  infernal  crew — Aka  Manah — The 
work  of  this  arch-demon — Druj — Her  Kingdom  of  Wicked- 
ness— The  adherents  of  Druj — Druj's  followers  are  to  be 
requited  with  evil  in  this  world — Druj's  disciples  fare  no 
better  in  the  next  world — Final  defeat  of  Druj — Aeshma — 
The  demon  of  wrath. 

VII.  Life  After  Death 54 

The  corporeal  and  the  spiritual  worlds — The  anomalies  of 
earthly  life  and  their  final  adjustment  in  heaven — Reward  for 
the  good  and  retribution  for  the  evil — The  soul  reaps  as 
it  has  sown — The  bridge  of  judgment — Heaven — Abode  of 
the  righteous  after  death — The  nature  of  reward  in  heaven — 
Intermediary  place  of  rewards — Between  heaven  and  hell — 
Hell — The  wicked  are  consigned  to  perdition — The  nature 
of  retribution  in  hell — Duration  of  punishment  in  hell. 

VIII.  The  Final  Dispensation 60 

The  end  of  the  world — The  saviour  prophets — Universal 
judgment — Righteousness  triumphs  over  wickedness — The 
Kingdom  of  Righteousness :  man's  share  in  its  inauguration. 

THE  AVESTAN  PERIOD 
From  about  b.c  800  to  about  a.d.  200  at  the  latest 

IX.  The  Avestan  People 67 

The  races  that  formed  the  Zoroastrian  fold— Athravans.  the 
Zoroastrian    priesthood    of    Eastern    Iran— Magi,    the    Zoro- 


72 


CONTENTS  •  xi 

CHAPTER 

.       ,         ,  PAGE 

astnan  priesthood  of  Western  Iran-The  Magi  presumably 
imp  ant  the  Zoroastnan  practices  in  Western  Iran— The  clas- 
sical writers  speak  of  the  Magi,  and  not  of  the  Athravans- 
a\  •  ^u""'*"^"  practices  alleged  to  have  originated  with  the 
Magi-The  internal  evidence  of  the  Avesta  militates  against 
the  theory  of  the  Magian  origin  of  the  sacred  texts. 

X.     Promulgation  of  the  Faith  of  Zarathushtra  . 

The  Avestan  works  extol  Zoroastrianism  as  the  excellent 
religion— 1  he  Zoroastnan  Church  soon  loses  state  support 
in  her  religious  propaganda— The  religious  propaganda— 
Spread  of  Zoroastrianism  to  remote  lands. 

XL  The  Younger  Avestan  Religion  •  ...  76 
From  the  Gathas  to  the  Younger  Avesta,  a  retrograde  step— 
Ihe  Indo-Iranian  cult  that  passes  under  the  mantle  of  Zara- 
thushtra—The  angels  that  outshine  the  archangels— Great 
as  the  benevolence  of  these  celestial  beings  is,  it  is  tarnished 
by  their  imprecations  upon  their  careless  votaries— Ahura 
Mazda  invokes  his  heavenly  ministers  for  help— Ceremonial 
implements,  textual  passages,  and  objects  and  expressions 
that  share  invocation— Zarathushtra's  monologues  in  the 
Gathas  as  against  his  dialogues  in  the  Avesta— The  Avesta 
looks  with  unrelenting  abhorrence  upon  idols  and  images  of 
divinities. 

XII.     Ahura  Mazda 32 

Ahura,  Mazda,  and  Ahura  Mazda— Ahura  Mazda  is  the 
highest  object  of  worship— Mazda's  titles— Only  the  world 
of  righteousness  is  created  by  Ahura  Mazda— Spenta  Mainyu 
or  the  Holy  Spirit. 


87 


XIII.     Amesha  Spentas 

The  archangels— Their  attributes— Their  work— Zarathushtra, 
the  first  among  mortals  to  sacrifice  unto  the  Amesha  Spentas — 
Vohu  Manah— His  place  in  the  Later  Avesta— Vohu  Manah 
guards  wisdom — His  work — Asha  Vahishta— His  righteous- 
ness remains  the  basic  doctrine  of  Zoroastrianism  during  the 
Later  Avestan  period — Righteousness  is  the  highest  riches — 
The  world  of  righteousness,  as  against  the  world  of  wicked- 
ness— Bodily  purity  contributes  to  righteousness — Asha  Va- 
hishta comes  to  be  regarded  as  the  healing  spirit  of  bodily 
diseases — Asha  Vahishta's  relation  to  fire — Khshathra 
Vairya — The  change  that  the  concept  undergoes — Khshathra 
Vairya  does  not  stand  so  much  for  the  celestial  riches  of  the 
Divine  Kingdom  in  the  world  hereafter,  as  for  the  earthly 
wealth — Spenta  Armaiti — Her  position  in  the  Avesta — Haur- 
vatat  and  Ameretat — The  dual  archangels. 


XIV.     Yazatas 96 

The    Zoroastrian    angels — History    of    the    Yazatas — Charac- 
teristic of  the  Yazatas — The  functions  of  the  Yazatas — Offer- 


xii  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  p^g^ 

ings  and  sacrifices  to  the  Yazatas — Division  of  the  Yazatas 
according  to  their  grammatical  gender— Group  Yazatas— 
Dual  Yazatas— Classification  of  the  Yazatas — Daena — Re- 
ligion deified— Chisti— Divinity  of  religious  wisdom— Sra- 
osha— His  personality— Sraosha's  attributes — The  work  of 
Sraosha — Sraosha's  gifts — Mithra — His  place  in  the  Avestan 
pantheon— Mithra's  attributes— Mithra's  associates— Mithra, 
the  genius  of  light— Mithra,  the  inveterate  foe  of  false- 
hood— Mithra.  the  guardian  of  contracts — Mithra  as  a  war 
divinity — Mithra's  chariot— Mithra's  wrath— Sacrifices  to 
Mithra — Mithra's  boons — Rashnu — Personification  of  truth 
— Rashnu  presides  at  the  ordeal  court — Arshtat — Divinity 
of  rectitude — Erethe  and  Rasanstat — Minor  divinities  of 
truth — Verethraghna — The  angel  of  victory — The  patron 
angel  of  the  Iranian  countries — Verethraghna's  work — 
His  metamorphoses — Raman — He  causes  the  joy  of  life 
— Rata — Charity  personified — Akhshti — The  angel  of  peace 
— Manthra  Spenta — The  spirit  of  the  spells — The  potency 
of  the  spells — The  chief  spells — Ahuna  Vairya — The  num- 
ber of  times  that  the  spells  are  recited — Those  privi- 
leged to  recite  the  spells — Dahma  Afriti — She  personifies 
the  power  of  benediction — Damoish  Upamana — He  personi- 
fies the  power  of  anathema — Airyaman — The  genius  of 
health — Haoma — The  divinity  of  joint  Indo-Iranian  fame — 
Haoma  pleads  the  greatness  of  his  cult — Haoma's  titles — His 
gifts — Haoma  implored  to  rout  the  wicked — Haoma's  due — 
Haoma's  curse — Haoma,  king  of  plants — Ashi  Vanghuhi — 
Physically  she  stands  for  plenty,  morally  for  piety — Ashi's 
attributes — Her  suppliants — Her  work — What  offends  Ashi 
most — Parendi — Ashi's  associate — Drvaspa — The  female 
genius  of  cattle — Her  sacrificers — Geush  Tashan  and  Geush 
Urvan — Drvaspa's  associates — Hvarekhshaeta — The  sun  dei- 
fied— Maonghah — The  moon  personified — Anaghra  Raochah — 
Deification  of  the  endless  light — Asman — Firmament  dei- 
fied— Ushah — The  female  divinity  of  dawn — Tishtrya — The 
star  genius  directs  the  rain — Tishtrya's  attributes — The  sacri- 
ficial offerings  enable  Tishtrya  to  work  with  added  vigour 
and  strength — His  fight  with  the  demon  of  drought — Vanant — 
A  star-Yazata — Satavaesa — An  acolyte  of  Tishtrya — Hapto- 
iringa — Another  acolyte  of  Tishtrya — Vayu — The  deification 
of  the  wind — Vayu's  attributes — Those  who  offer  sacrifices 
unto  Vayu — Atar — The  fire  cult  in  Iran — Atar  is  both  the 
genius  of  fire  and  the  element  fire  itself — Atar's  boons — 
His  work — What  causes  grief  to  Atar — Nairyosangha — 
Mazda's  celestial  herald — Ardvi  Sura  Anahita — The  angel  of 
waters — Her  image  in  words  found  in  the  texts,  corresponds 
with  her  statue  in  stone — Ahura  Mazda  heads  the  list  of  her 
sacrificers  who  entreat  her  for  various  boons — She  refuses 
to  concede  the  wicked  persons  their  wishes — The  offerings 
of  libations — Animal  sacrifices  to  Anahita — Any  defilement 
of  the  waters  evokes  Ardvi  Sura's  displeasure — Ardvi  Sura's 
chariot — Apam  Napat — His  nature  and  work — Ahurani — An- 
other water  genius — Zamyat — The  earth  deified. 


XV.     Fravashis 143 

What  are  the  Fravashis — Everything  that  bears  the  hall- 
mark of  belonging  to  the  good  creation  has  its  Fravashi — 
During    the    Hfetime    of    the    individual,    his    Fravashi    ac- 


CONTENTS  xiij 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

companies  him  to  this  earth — Qualities  of  the  Fravashis — 
Their  work — Fravashis  help  the  living — Fravashis  of  the 
dead  long  for  sacrifices — Fravashis  bless  if  satiated,  but 
curse  when  offended — Fravashis  of  the  righteous  ones  of 
one's  family,  clan,  town,  or  country  invoked  individually — 
Fravashis  of  the  righteous  ones  of  all  ages  and  all  places 
invoked  collectively — Dual  nature  of  the  Zoroastrian  ances- 
tor-worship. 

XVI.     Personified  Abstractions 151 

The  infinity  of   time  and  immensity   of   space  personified — 
Zrvan  Akarana — Thwasha. 


XVII.     Baghas 153 

The  Divinities. 


XVIII.     Evil 155 

Dualism  in   evolution — The   earliest  non-Zoroastrian   writers 
speak  of  Zoroastrianism  as  the  religion  of   dualism — Angra 
Mainyu — The  titles  of  the  Evil  Spirit — The  counter-creations 
of  Angra  Mainyu — Angra  Mainyu  grovels  before  Zarathush- 
tra — Angra    Mainyu's    final    defeat — Daevas — The    demons — 
The  work  of  the  demons — Means  to  confound  them — Those 
who  strike  terror  into  the  hearts  of  the  demons — The  Daeva- 
worshippers — Zoroastrianism    is    anti-daeva,    or    against    the 
demons — Aka  Manah— The  demon  of  Evil  Mind — Druj — The 
embodiment  of  wickedness — Other  drujes — Druj   as  the  per- 
sonification  of   bodily   impurity   under  the  name   Nasu — The 
barrier   between   the  ashavans   and   dregvants   is   still   impas- 
sable—Indra — A  god  in  the  Vedas,  a  demon  in  the  Avesta— 
Saurva — Foe    to    the    archangel     Khshathra    Vairya — Taro- 
maiti — She    thwarts    devotion — Xaonghaithya — A    demon    of 
incipient  personality — Taurvi  and  Zairicha — Taurvi  and  Zairi- 
cha    as    adversaries    of    Haurvatat    and    Ameretat — Astovid- 
hotu— The  fiend  of  death— Vizaresha— This  demon's  work— 
Kunda— A     demon     at     the     gate     of     hell— Bushyansta— 
Sloth    personified — Aeshma — The    demon    of    wrath — Buiti — 
The    tempter    of     Zarathushtra — Apaosha — The     demon     of 
drought — Spenjhagri — Apaosha's     associate — Azi — Demon     of 
avarice — Vayu— A    collaborator    of    Astovidhotu— Minor    de- 
mons— Pairika — The  fairies. 

XIX.     Death  and  Beyond I74 

The  mightiest  of  men  cower  before  death— The  recital  of 
the  sacred  formulas  on  the  deathbed  of  man  helps  his  soul 
when  it  leaves  the  tenement  of  the  body— From  this  world 
to  that  which  is  bevond— All  souls  dwell  three  nights  on  earth 
after  death— Daena  accompanies  the  soul  to  the  next  world- 
All  souls  have  to  make  their  way  across  the  Chinvat  Bridge 
into  heaven  or  hell— Heaven— Four  heavens— A  cordial  wel- 
come awaits  the  pious  souls  in  paradise— The  pious  enjoy 
eternally  what  but  few  mortals  enjoy,  and  then  only  for  a 
short  period  in  this  world— Misvana  Gatu— The  intermediary 


xiv  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  p^^ 

place  between  heaven  and  hell— Hell— Four  hells— The  wicked 
souls  reap  in  incessant  tears  the  crop  they  have  sown  in  the 
finite  world. 

XX.  The   Renovation igi 

The  greatest  of  the  renovators— The  final  reconcilation  of  the 
entire  creation  to  its  creator. 

XXI.  ZOROASTRIANISM    UnDER  THE  FOREIGN  YOKE    .  .       184 

Alexander  consigns  the  Zoroastrian  scriptures  to  the  flames 

Zoroastrianism  thrives  better  under  the  Parthians  than  under 
the  Seleucids — Zoroastrian  practices  embraced  by  the  Par- 
thians— Classical  references  to  Zoroastrianism  during  this 
period — Zoroastrianism  spreads  its  influence  abroad — Zoro- 
astrianism at  the  close  of  the  Parthian  empire. 


THE  PAHLAVI  PERIOD 
From  the  third  to  the  ninth  century 

XXII.  Zoroastrianism    as   Taught    by   the   Pahlavi 

Works 191 

Ardashir,  a  Magus,  rejuvenates  Zoroastrianism — The  revival 
of  Zoroastrianism  continues  with  unabating  zeal — The  Pahlavi 
works  are  written  by  many  hands  in  successive  periods — 
The  Pahlavi  literature  has  its  roots  in  the  Avestan  soil — 
The  Pahlavi  literature  is  the  completion  of  the  Avestan 
works — The  trend  of  the  religious  thought  of  the  Pahlavi 
period — The  Sasanian  Church  became  an  arbiter  of  the  faith 
of  Zoroaster. 

XXIII.  The  Active  Propaganda  of  the  Faith       .       .     198 

The  Pahlavi  works  on  proselytism — An  Armenian  account  of 
the  Zoroastrian  propaganda — Judaism  and  Christianity  pene- 
trate into  Persia  as  the  formidable  rivals  of  the  national 
faith — ^Judaism  in   Persia — Christian  propaganda  in  Iran. 

XXIV.  Sects 203 

Zoroastrianism  split  up  into  a  number  of  sects — Zarvanites — 
Zarvan  according  to  the  Pahlavi  writers — Zarvan  according 
to  the  non-Zoroastrian  writers — Fatalists — Fate  is  the  decree 
of  Time — The  inscrutable  power  of  Fate — How  far  Fate 
affects  man's  exertions. 

XXV.  Heresies 209 

Heretics  detested  more  than  the  demon-worshippers — Mani — 
The  arch-heretic  of  the  Sasanian  period — IMani's  eclectic  sys- 
tem— Mani  holds  matter  to  be  the  root  of  evil,  hence  self- 
mortification  of  the  body  is  a  virtue  in  his  system — Zoro- 
astrianism stands   for   controlling  and   regulating  bodily   de- 


CONTENTS  XV 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

sires,  but  not  for  suppressing  and  killing  them — Celibacy,  a 
virtue  with  Mani,  a  vice  with  Zoroaster — Fasting  recom- 
mended by  Manichaeism,  condemned  by  Zoroastrianism — 
Mani's  doctrine  of  poverty  in  the  light  of  Zoroastrianism — 
Mazdak — The   economic   basis   of   his   religious    reform. 

XXVI.  Ormazd 220 

The  supreme  godhead — Ormazd  is  eternal — Ormazd  is  invisi- 
ble— He  is  intangible — He  is  omniscient — He  is  omnipotent— 
Ormazd  is  the  creator  and  conservator  of  creation — He  is 
all-good — He  is  all-merciful — Ormazd  is  light  physically;  mor- 
ally he  is  truth — He  is  all-just — Man  should  devote  himself 
body  and  soul  to  Ormazd — The  Holy  Spirit. 

XXVII.  Amshaspands 226 

The  archangels — Their  attributes — Their  work — Vohuman — 
His  materialization — He  protects  Zaratusht  from  the  time  of 
the  prophet's  birth,  and  helps  him  in  his  prophetic  work — 
Vohuman's  functions — Goodness  and  wisdom  abound  in  man 
when  he  welcomes  Vohuman  as  his  guest — On  the  material 
side  Vohuman  is  the  patron  divinity  of  animals — Artavahisht — 
His  zeal  for  the  protection  of  fire  now  supersedes  his  primal 
work  of  guarding  righteousness — His  work — Shatravar— Once 
the  genius  of  the  Divine  Kingdom  of  Ormazd,  but  in  the 
Pahlavi  period  the  guardian  spirit  of  the  mineral  kingdom 
only— Spandarmad — Her  work — Khurdad — The  giver  of  daily 
bread — Amardad — Amardad  confines  his  activity  to  guarding 
the  vegetable  kingdom,  and  does  not  represent  immortality, 
which  is  his  prerogative. 

XXVIII.  IZADS 236 

The  angels— The  Izads  are  the  loving  guides  and  protectors 
of  men— Sacrificial  offerings  made  to  the  angels— Srosh— 
His  activity— A  judge  of  the  dead— Mihr— Lord  chief  justice 
of  the  heavenly  tribunal— Rashn— He  holds  the  balance  of 
judgment  in  the  celestial  court— Khurshed— His  message  to 
mankind— Tishtar— He  retains  his  position  as  the  genms  of 
rain. 

XXIX.  Farohars 243 

The  Farohars  have  existed  long  before  the  world  came  into 
being— They  volunteer  to  descend  to  earth  and  stand  by  men 
to  the  end  of  their  lives— In  the  Pahlavi  period  their  influence 
is  less  prominent— It  is  for  the  welfare  of  the  living  that  the 
Farohars  solicit  sacrifices— The  line  of  distinction  bet\yeen 
the  souls  and  the  Farohars  of  the  dead  is  gradually  obliter- 
ated in  the  Pahlavi  texts. 

XXX.  Evil ^47 

Independent  origin  of  evil-Tracing  both  good  and  evil  to 
God  deprives  him  of  his  divinity-The  goodness  of  Ormazd  \/ 

demands  that  he  could  on  no  account  be  the  author  of  evil- 
The  all-wise  God  would  not  create  his  o^n  adversary- 
Omnipotent    Ormazd    has    not    created    evil— Ormazd,    the 


xvi  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  p^(,g 

sovereign  ruler,  would  not  harass  his  earthly  subjects  by 
the  creation  of  evil — Unmerited  harm  could  not  emanate 
from  a  just  God — God,  the  embodiment  of  mercy,  could  not 
inflict  evil  upon  his  own  creatures — It  is  deemed  futile  to 
attempt  to  resolve  Ahriman  into  a  symbolic  personification 
of  man's  evil  nature — Ahriman — The  primeval  source  of 
evil— Ahriman  is  a  spirit— Ahriman  has  •  backward  knowl- 
edge—As the  arch-enemy  of  Ormazd,  Ahriman  swears 
vengeance  upon  the  good  creation— Ahriman  lures  man  to 
destruction  by  deceit — Ahriman  produces  seductive  demons 
to  pervert  mankind — Ahriman  introduces  disease  and  death 
into  the  world — Ahriman  infests  the  earth  with  noxious 
creatures — Ahriman  disfigures  Ormazd's  creation — The  end 
of  Ahriman — The  final  disappearance  of  evil  from  the 
world — Divs — The  emissaries  of  Ahriman — Their  work — 
Akoman — Ahriman's  premier — His  attempt  to  enter  the  mind 
of  the  prophet  Zaratusht  when  a  child  to  pervert  it  is  frus- 
trated by  Vohuman — Evil  thoughts  in  man  come  from  Ako- 
man— Druj — The  change  wrought  in  the  conception  of  her 
work— Draj's  work — What  puts  her  to  flight— Indar— Trans- 
formation of  a  great  Indian  divinity  into  an  execrated  demon 
in  Persia — Sovar — Enemy  of  the  divine  Kingdom  of  Right- 
eousness— Taromat — The  demon  that  dries  up  the  spring 
of  devotion  in  man — Naonghas — Taromat's  confederate — 
Tairev — The  opponent  of  the  archangel  of  perfection — 
Zairich — Tairev's  comrade — Astovidad — This  demon  of  death 
casts  his  deadly  noose  around  all — Vizarsh — Astovidad's  col- 
laborator— Eshm — An  impetuous  assailant  of  man — Aposh — 
Tishtar's  antagonist — Jeh — A  powerful  demoness — Other 
demons. 

XXXI.  Life  After  Death 269 

Death  is  the  completion  of  life — Srosh's  help  indispensable 
for  the  disembodied  souls — The  souls  visualize  the  good  or 
bad  deeds  of  the  lives  they  have  just  completed — The  souls 
escorted  by  the  genii  of  their  own  deeds  to  the  other  world — 
The  heavenly  judges — Location  of  the  Bridge  of  Judgment — 
The  bridge  provides  a  wide  passage  to  the  pious  souls,  but 
confronts  the  wicked  with  its  sharp  edge — Insane  persons 
and  children  are  not  accountable  for  their  own  deeds,  but 
their  parents  are  responsible — The  method  of  administering 
justice  in  the  heavenly  tribunal — Heaven — The  graduated 
heavens — Location  of  heavens — Nature  of  heaven — Condition 
of  the  souls  in  heaven — Celestial  food — Duration  of  heavenly 
bliss — Hamistagan — The  intermediary  place  between  heaven 
and  hell — The  condition  of  its  inmates  till  the  final  day  of  the 
Renovation — Hell — Graduated  hells — Location  of  hell — De- 
scription of  hell — Ahriman  greets  the  wicked  souls  in  hellwith 
scorn  and  mockery — Punishments  and  retributive  justice — All 
conceivable  forms  of  physical  torture  prevail  in  hell — Soli- 
tude in  hell  is  appalling — Intensity  of  the  darkness  and  stench 
of  hell — The  foulest  food  served  to  the  sinners — Duration  of 
punishment  in  hell. 

XXXII.  The  Renovation 284 

Those  who  further  the  work  of  the  final  restoration — Saviours 
born  immaculately— The  millennium  of  Hoshedar — The  mil- 


CONTENTS  xvii 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

lennium  of  Hoshedar-mah — The  millennium  of  Soshyos — 
The  collaborators  of  Sosyos — Resurrection  of  the  dead — Uni- 
versal judgment — Bodily  punishment — Ordeal  of  molten 
metal — The  righteous  and  the  wicked  shall  no  longer  remain  as 
divided,  but  unite  into  one — The  removal  of  the  imperfec- 
tion of  the  material  bodies  of  men — The  last  decisive  battle 
between  the  forces  of  good  and  evil — Humanity  attunes  its 
will  to  the  will  of  Ormazd. 


A  PERIOD  OF  DECADENCE 
From  the  seventh  to  the  eighteenth  century 

XXXIII.  Downfall  of  the  Sasanians,  and  the  After- 

math      297 

Iran  sinks  before  the  hordes  of  Arabs — Persecution  and  con- 
version— Almost  every  vestige  of  Iranian  scholarship  per- 
ishes— A  glimpse  into  the  religious  life  of  the  Iranians  dur- 
ing the  centuries  that  followed — The  Zoroastrian  community 
in  Persia,  during  these  centuries,  lay  steeped  in  the  gross- 
est ignorance  and  darkness. 

XXXIV.  Exodus  to  India 304 

The  Deva-worshippers  of  India  greet  the  Daeva-abjurers 
of  Iran — Reviling  each  other's  gods,  yet  living  peacefully 
together — A  period  of  literary  arrest — Pahlavi  studies — Par- 
si-Sanskrit  literature. 

XXXV.  Rivayats     .       .       .       .  ' 307 

Persian  Rivayats,  or  codes  of  usages  and  rituals — Theology 
of  the  period. 

XXXVI.  Mystics  and  Mysticism 311 

Desatir  and  Dabistan — Zoroastrian  mystics — Azar  Kaivan  and 
his  disciples — Mystic  literature  during  the  century — The  al- 
leged twofold  meaning  of  the  Avesta — Ascetic  practices  of 
the  Parsi  mystics — Unmistakable  influence  of  Hindu  Yogism. 

XXXVII.  Religious  Controversies    .        .        .       .     '  .     319 

Theological  disputations — Intercalation  controversy  provides 
a  powerful  incentive  to  the  study  of  the  ancient  Zoroastrian 
scriptures. 

XXXVIII.  An  Epoch-making  Era  in  the  History  of 

Zoroastrian  Researches      ....     321 

Introduction  of  Iranian  studies  in  the  West — Anquetil  du 
Perron's  pioneer  work — Western  scholarship  revives  Zoro- 
astrian studies. 


xviii  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PACE 

XXXIX.     Proselytizing    Comes    to   be    Viewed    with 

Disfavour 323 

Beginning  of  the  spirit  of  exclusiveness  among  the  Parsis — 
The  community  was  divided  regarding  the  question  of  ad- 
mitting lower  classes  of  aliens  into  the  fold— The  fear  that 
the  community  might  be  swamped  by  the  undesirable  alien 
element  was  a  reason  why  proselytizing  fell  into  disfavour. 

XL.     GujARATi  Literature  upon  Zoroastrianism    .        .     326 

The  last  independent  native  version  of  Avesta — Rendering 
of  other  Persian  works  into  Gujarati. 


A  PERIOD  OF  REVIVAL 

Nineteenth  century  and  after 

XLI.     The  Revival  of  Learning  Among  the  Parsis      .     331 

Awakening  of  the  communal  conscience — The  new  knowledge 
profoundly  modified  the  religious  conceptions  of  the  young — 
An  illiterate  priesthood  failed  to  satisfy  the  intellectual 
wants  of  the  enlightened  youth. 

XLIL     Introduction  of  the  Western  Method  of  Iran- 
ian Scholarship  in  India 334 

Parsi  scholarship  at  this  period — Historical  studies  fared  little 
better — Textual  criticism  brings  startling  revelations  for  the 
Parsis — Back  to  the  Gathas  was  the  war-cry  of  the  new 
school — A  new  theory  to  defend  the  Gathas  from  the  accusa- 
tion of  dualism. 

XLIII.    Christian  Missionaries  Attack  Zoroastrianism     339 

Indiflferentism  on  the  part  of  the  Parsi  youth  arouses  the 
proselytizing  zeal  of  the  Christian  missionaries — Salient  fea- 
tures of  Zoroastrianism  assailed  by  the  missionaries — Parsi 
apologists  meet  the  charges  of  their  opponents  by  resorting 
to  allegorical  explanations — The  outcome  of  this  controversy. 

XLIV.     The  Reform  Movement 343 

Crusade  against  the  non-Zoroastrian  practices  engrafted  upon 
Zoroastrianism — The  reformers  protested  against  reciting  their 
prayers  parrot-wise  in  an  unintelligible  language — The  Aves- 
tan  text  metamorphosed  into  an  ungrammatical  jargon — 
Too  much  ritualism,  protested  the  reformer — The  progres- 
sives denounce  the  intercessory  prayers  for  the  dead — The 
reformers  inveigh  against  holding  woman  impure  during  her 
menses — Controversy  over  the  religious  practice  of  using  the 
urine  of  cattle — The  good  sense  of  the  disputants  saves  the 
community   from   being  split  into  sects. 


CONTENTS  xix 

CHAPTER  PAta: 

XLV.     Parsi  Theosophists 352 

Inquiring  minds  seek  a  deeper  meaning  of  life — The  mode 
of  living  of  the  Parsi  theosophists  is  more  austere  than  that 
of  their  neighbours— The  Parsi  theosophists  abstain  from 
animal  food — Zoroastrianism,  however,  has  no  scruples  against 
a  meat  diet — Custodians  of  the  only  key  to  Zoroastrianism — 
Investing  Zoroastrianism  with  a  philosophical  garb — The 
theosophists  attempt  to  construct  a  scientific  basis  for  Zoro- 
astrianism— The  theosophists  summarily  reject  the  method  of 
the  philologist  adopted  in  interpreting  the  sacred  texts — 
Parsi  theosophists  as  champions  of  the  cause  of  orthodoxy — 
Avestan  prayers,  however  unintelligible,  are  declared  the  most 
efficacious  owing  to  their  occult  significance — An  evil  mag- 
netic aura,  or  malign  halo,  believed  to  radiate  from  a  woman 
during  the  time  of  menses,  hence  her  isolation  most  es- 
sential— Occult  power,  according  to  Parsi  theosophic  view, 
emanates  from  consecrated  urine  of  cattle — Zoroastrianism  in 
the  light  of  theosophy — Zrvan  Akarana  as  an  impersonal  God 
in  the  theosophic  light — Zoroastrianism  declared  by  the  theo- 
sophic claim  to  be  incomplete  without  the  doctrine  of  trans- 
migration of  souls — How  the  movement  affects  the  communal 
character. 

XLVI.    Zoroastrianism    Ceases   to    be   a    Missionary 

Religion  367 

The  causes  that  have  led  the  preponderating  number  of  the 
community  to  decide  against  any  kind  of  proselytizing — How 
the  decision  of  the  Parsis  not  to  accept  any  converts  affects 
the   future   of   the   community. 

XLVII.     Conclusion 369 

Index 375 


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Lord,  Henry.    The  Religion  of  the  Parsees.    London,  1630. 
Madan,  D.  M.   Discourses  on  Iranian  Literature.    Bombay,  1909. 
Menant,  D.    Les  Parsis.     Paris,  1898. 
Menant,  J.    Zoroaster.    Essai  sur  la  Philosophie  religieuse  de  la 

Perse.    2d  ed.    Paris,  1857. 
Mills,  L.  H.    Zarathushtra  and  the  Greeks.    Leipzig,  1903,  1904. 
Mills,  L.  H.    Zarathushtra,  Philo,  the  Achaemenids  and  Israel. 

Leipzig,  1905,  1906. 
Mills,  L.  H.    Avesta  Eschatology  compared  with  the  Books  of 

Daniel  and  Revelations.    Chicago,  1908. 
Mills,  L.  H.    Our  Own  Religion  in  Ancient  Persia,  1913. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  xxv 

Minu-i  Khrat.    Translated  from  the  Pahlavi  text  by  E,  W.  West. 

In  Sacred  Books  of  the  East,  vol.  24. 
Mistri,  R.  H.    Zoroaster  and  Zoroastrianism.     Bombay,  1906. 

Modi,  Jivanji  J.    The  Religious  System  of  the  Parsees.     Bom- 
bay, 1885. 

Modi,  Jivanji  J.    The  Parsis  at  the  court  of  Akbar  and  Dastur 

Meherjee  Rana.     Bombay,  1903. 
Modi,  Jivanji  J.    A  few  events  in  the  early  history  of  the  Parsis 

•and  their  dates.     Bombay,  1905. 
Moulton,  James  H.    Early  Religious  Poetry  of  Persia.     Cam- 
bridge, 191 1. 
Moulton,  James  H.    Early  Zoroastrianism.    London,  1913. 
Ragozin,  Z.  A.    Media.     New  York,  1888. 
Rapp,  A.    The  Religion  and  Customs  of  the  Persians  and  other 

Iranians,  as  described  by  the  Grecian  and  Roman  Authors. 

Translated   from  the   German  by   K.   R.   Cama.     Bombay, 

1 876- 1 879. 
Raw^linson,  George.    The  Five  Great  Monarchies  of  the  Ancient 

Eastern    World,    Chaldea,    Assyria,    Babylon,    Media,    and 

Persia.    4  vols.     London,  1862-1867. 
Rawlinson,  George.    The  Sixth  Great  Oriental  Monarchy.    Lon- 
don, 1873. 
Rawlinson,    George.    The   Seventh    Great   Oriental    Monarchy. 

London,  1876. 
Rindtorff,  E.    Die  Religion  des  Zarathushtra.     Weimar,  1897. 
Rosenberg,   F.    Le  Livre   de   Zoroastre    (Zaratusht-Nama)    de 

Zartusht-i  Bahram  Pajdu.    St.  Petersburg,  1904. 
Sad  Dar.     Translated  from  the  Pahlavi-Pazand  text  by  E.  W. 

West.    In  Sacred  Books  of  the  East,  vol.  24. 
Sanjana,  Darab  P.    Zarathushtra  in  the  Gathas  and  the  Greek 

and  Roman  Classics.    Translated  from  the  German  of  Geiger 

and  Windischmann.    Leipzig,  1897. 
Sanjana,  Rastamji  E.    Zarathushtra  and  Zarathushtrianism  in 

the  Avesta.     Leipzig,  1906. 
Shah  Namah.    See  Firdausi. 
Shatroiha-i  Airan.    Translated  from  the  Pahlavi  text  by  Jivanji 

Jamshedji  Modi.     Bombay,  1899. 


xxvi  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Shikand  Gumanik  Vijar.   Translated  from  the  Pahlavi-Pazand 
text  by  E.  W.  West.    In  Sacred  Books  of  the  East,  vol.  24. 

Soderblom,  N.    Les  Fravashis.     Paris,  1899. 

Soderblom,  N.    La  Vie  Future  d'apres  le  Mazdeisme.     Angers, 

1901. 
Speigel,    Fr.     Eranische    Alterthumskunde.      3    vols.      Leipzig, 

1877,  1878. 
Spiegel,  Fr.    Die  Arische  Periode.     Leipzig,  1881. 
Spiegel  Memorial  Volume.    Edited  by  Jivanji  Jamshedji  Modi. 

Bombay,  1908. 
Stave,  E.    Ueber  den  Einfluss  des  Parsismus  auf  das  Judentum. 

Haarlem,  1898. 
Tabari,  al-.    Geschichte  der  Perser  und  Araber  zur  Zeit  der  Sas- 

aniden,  aus  der  Arabischen  Chronik  des  Tabari,  von  Theodor 

Noldeke.     Leiden,  1879.       , 
Tiele,  C.  P.    The  Religion  of  the  Iranian  Peoples.     Translated 

from  the  German  by  G.  K.  Nariman.    Part  i,  Bombay,  1912. 

A  considerable  portion  of  Part  2  in  Asha,  vol.  i.,  Nos.  i,  2, 

6,  7,  9-12,  Karachi,  1910,  191 1. 
Vullers,   J.    A.    Fragmente   ueber   die   Religion   des   Zoroaster. 

Bonn,  1 83 1. 
Wadia,  Ardaser  S.    The  Message  of  Zoroaster.    London,  1912. 
Weissbach,     F.     H.     Die    Keilinschriften     der     Achameniden. 

Leipzig,  191 1. 
Wilson,  John.    The  Parsi  Religion.     Bombay,  1843. 
Windischmann,     Fr.    Die     Persische     Anahita    oder     Anaites. 

Miinchen,  1856. 
Windischmann,  Fr.    Mithra.    Leipzig,  1857. 
Windischmann,  Fr.    Zoroastrische  Studien.    Berlin,  1863. 


ABBREVIATIONS 


AF. 

Air.  Wb. 

AnAtM. 

AnKhK. 

Aog. 

Artax.  Pers. 

Av. 

AV. 

Bd. 

Bh. 

bk. 

BYt. 

cf. 

Dar.  Alv. 


Dar 

Db. 

Dd. 

Dk. 

ed. 

Eng. 

EpM. 

ERE. 

FHG. 

G. 

GIrPh 

Gs. 

Guj. 

i.e. 

ibid. 

Is. 

Hn. 

Jsp- 

JAOS 

JRAS 

KZ. 

Mkh. 

NR. 

Nr. 

Ny. 

Pers. 


Pers. 


Arische  Forschungen. 

Altiranisches  Worterbuch    (Bartholomae). 

Andarz-i  Atarpat-i   Maraspand. 

Andarz-i  Khusru-i  Kavatan. 

Aogemadaecha. 

inscriptions  of  Artaxerxes  at  Persepolis. 

Avesta. 

Arda  Viraf. 

Bundahishn. 

Behistan. 

book. 

Pahlavi  Bahman  Yasht. 

(confer),  compare. 

inscriptions  of  Darius  on  Mt.  Alvand    (Elvend), 

near  Hamadan. 
inscriptions  of  Darius  at  Persepolis. 
Dabistan. 
Dadistan-i  Denik. 
Dinkard. 

edition  of,  edited  by. 
English. 

Epistles  of  Manushchihr. 

Encyclopaedia  of  Religion  and  Ethics   (Hastings). 
Fragmenta    Historicorum    Graecorum    (Miiller). 
Gah. 

Grundriss  der  Iranischen  Philologie. 
Ganj-i  Shayikan. 
Gujarati. 
(id  est),  that  is. 
(ibidem),  in  the  same  work. 
Isaiah. 
:     Hadokht  Nask. 

Jamaspi. 
:     Journal  of  the  American  Oriental  Society. 
:     Journal  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society. 
:     Kuhn's     Zeitschrift     fiJr     Vergleichende     Sprach- 

forschung. 
:     Menuk-i   Khrat. 

:     inscriptions   of    Darius   at   Naksh-i   Rustam. 
:     Nirangistan. 
:     Nyaish. 
:     Persian. 

xxvii 


XXVlll 


ABBREVIATIONS 


Pt. 

Phi. 

Rv. 

SEE. 

Sd. 

Sg. 

Skt. 

Sr. 

SIS. 

TdFr. 

tr. 

Vd. 

vers. 

vol. 

Vsp. 

WFr. 

Xerx.  Pers, 

Ys. 

Yt. 

ZDMG. 

Zsp. 


Patit. 

Pahlavi. 

Rivayat. 

Sacred  Books  of  the  East. 

Sad  Dar. 

Shikand  Gumanik  Vijar. 

Sanskrit. 

Sirozah. 

Shayast-la-Shayast. 

Tahmuras  Fragment. 

translated  by,  translation  of. 

Vendidad. 

version. 

volume. 

Visperad. 

Westergaard  Fragment. 

inscriptions  of  Xerxes  at  Persepolis. 

Yasna. 

Yasht. 

Zeitschrift    der    Deutschen    Morgenlandischen    Ge- 

sellschaft. 
Zatsparam. 


INTRODUCTION 

Scope  of  the  work.    The  Gathic,  Avestan,  and  Pahlavi  periods 
have  already  received  separate  treatment  in  the  works  hitherto 
printed  on  the  reUgion  of  Zoroaster.     It  may  be  said,  however, 
that  none  of  these  treats  the  history  of  Zoroastrian  theology  as  a 
whole.     It  is  essential  to  a  clear  comprehension  of  the  religious 
thought  prevalent  in  the  Parsi  community  at  various  epochs  of  its 
history  to  present  a  concise  account  of  religious  beliefs  from  the 
pre-Gathic  times  down  to  the  present  day.     The  present  work 
attempts  to  do  this,  and  it  will,  I  hope,  meet  the  needs  of  my  co- 
religionists  desirous   of   obtaining  a  general   knowledge  of   the 
gradual  process  of  the  development  of  Zoroastrian  theology  from 
its  early  simplicity  to  the  complexity  which  it  exhibits  at  present. 
Its   aim.    It  augurs   well   for  the  community  that  religious 
studies  have  of  late  been  carried  on  with  greater  zeal  than  before 
among  the  Parsis.     Different  schools  undertake  to  interpret  the 
sacred  books  according  to  their  various  methods.     The  philolo- 
gist and  the  scientist,  the  rationalist  and  the  mystic  are  all  in 
the  field.     Everyone  looks  at  the  question  from  his  own  angle 
of  vision,  and  sees  it  in  a  different  light.    The  result  is  that  the 
average  Parsi  remains  in  a  state  of  vacillation  between  these 
conflicting  views.     The  reader  will  find  a  short  account  of  the 
teachings  of  these  different  schools  in  the  closing  chapters  of  the 
book.     In  chronicling  the  development  of  religious  thought  in 
the  community,  I  have  attempted,  as  far  as  it  has  been  practicable, 
not  to  write  as  a  partisan.     I  have  aimed  at  an  independent  in- 
quiry without  prepossession  in  favour  of  one  belief  or  another. 
I  have  not  directed  my  energy  to  reading  into  the  texts  far-fetched 
interpretations  with  a  view  to  investing  them  with  a  rational 
garb;  neither  have  I   attempted   to   attach  occult  and  esoteric 
significance  to  the  plain  words  of  the  sacred  texts  in  order  to 
cover  them  under  a  mystic  cloak.     Though  conscious  of   the 
fact  that  I  write  as  a  minister  of  the  faith  of  Zoroaster,  I  have 
not  allowed  the  clerical  zeal  to  supersede  the  impartiality  of  a 
scholar.    I  have  not  rated  scholarship  less  than  ministry.    Hence 
it  is  that  I  have  not  resorted  to  sophistical  arguments  to  defend 
apologetically  dogmas  and  doctrines  that  have  clustered  round 

xxix 


XXX  INTRODUCTION 

the  pristine  teachings  of  Zoroaster.  I  have  aimed  throughout 
at  the  presentation  of  an  ungarnished  account  of  the  gradual 
growth  of  the  rehgious  ideas,  as  the  history  of  the  three  thousand 
years  of  the  religion  of  the  great  prophet  has  recorded  them. 

Arrangement  and  method.  I  have  divided  the  entire  period 
of  the  history  of  Zoroastrianism  on  the  linguistic  basis.  The 
earliest  Zoroastrian  documents  are  the  Gathas,  written  in  the 
Gathic  dialect.  They  represent  the  earliest  phase  of  the  religion 
of  Zoroaster.  But  ancient  Iran  had  a  religion  which  preceded 
Zoroastrianism  in  point  of  time.  It  was  the  naturalistic  religion 
evolved  by  a  people  in  a  primitive  state  of  culture,  who  had 
advanced  to  the  stage  of  conceiving  the  natural  world  as  peopled 
with  spirits.  I  have  labelled  this  period  pre-Gathic;  for  its  be- 
ginning is  lost  in  remote  antiquity,  and  the  advent  of  Zoroaster 
brings  its  end. 

The  time  when  Zoroaster  flourished  is  a  moot  question.  I 
have  accepted  the  approximate  date  looo  b.c,  which  the  con- 
sensus of  scholarly  opinion  assigns  to  him.  Zoroaster  revolu- 
tionizes the  religious  life  of  the  Iranians,  which  hitherto  rep- 
resented the  evolutionary  phase  of  religion.  It  was  the  move- 
ment in  which  we  find  the  religious  thought  creeping  for  ages 
to  rise  from  the  lower  to  the  higher  level.  To  put  this  in 
another  way,  the  pre-Gathic  religion  of  Iran  is  the  evolution  of 
the  religious  thought  of  many  men  and  many  ages;  Zoroaster's 
is  the  creation  of  one  man  and  one  age.  The  prophet  of  Iran 
establishes  a  new  religion.  In  the  pre-Gathic  religion  the  trend 
of  religious  thought  struggles  from  the  complex  to  the  simple, 
from  concrete  to  abstract,  and  is  yet  the  farthest  removed  from 
the  ideal  stage.  Zoroastrianism,  on  the  other  hand,  as  preached 
in  the  Gathas  is  the  very  embodiment  of  the  simple  and  the 
abstract.  It  is  the  realization  of  the  ideal.  It  is  the  norm  to 
which  the  coming  generations  have  to  conform.  Deviation  from 
it  would  mean  a  fall,  a  degeneration  of  the  religious  life.  This 
second  period  I  have  termed  Gathic. 

Decay  soon  begins  in  the  language  in  which  Zoroaster  com- 
posed his  immortal  hymns,  and  his  successors  now  write  in  the 
Avestan  dialect,  which  replaces  the  Gathic.  The  Avestan  language 
remains  the  written  language  of  the  Zoroastrians  from  now  on- 
ward to  probably  the  last  days  of  the  Parthians,  when  the 
Pahlavi  language  becomes  the  court  language  of  the  Sasanians 


INTRODUCTION  xxxi 

and  supersedes  the  Avestan.  The  most  extensive  Hterature  on 
Zoroastrianism  is  written  in  Avestan.  This  period,  which  I 
have  called  Later  Avestan  period,  extends  to  the  early  part  of 
the  Pahlavi  era  and  goes  even  beyond  it.  When  the  two  periods 
thus  overlap  each  other,  it  often  becomes  difficult  to  determine 
whether  a  certain  phase  of  religious  thought  is  on  one  side  or  the 
other  of  the  dividing  line  between  them.  The  Avestan  works, 
in  the  form  in  which  they  were  written  in  the  Avestan  period, 
no  longer  exist.  They  were  scattered  by  the  storm  that  swept 
over  Persia  when  Alexander  conquered  the  country,  and  shook 
her  religious  edifice  to  its  base.  The  form  in  which  the  Avestan 
texts  have  reached  us  is  that  which  was  given  them  during  the 
Pahlavi  period.  The  artists  employed  to  restore  the  broken 
edifice  belong  to  the  Pahlavi  period,  but  the  materials  used  come 
down  from  the  Avestan  sources. 

The  Pahlavi  period  ranks  fourth  in  the  arrangement  of  the 
present  work,  and  it  covers  a  period  of  about  eight  centuries. 
Although  it  is  most  productive  under  the  Sasanian  rule,  it  does 
not  close  with  the  collapse  of  this,  the  last  of  the  Zoroastrian 
empires,  but  survives  it  by  at  least  three  centuries  in  Moslem 
Persia.  Though  Pahlavi  had  replaced  Avestan,  the  early  works 
written  in  the  ancient  language  had  not  yet  ceased  to  influence 
the  Pahlavi  writers.  In  fact,  some  of  the  most  important  of  the 
Pahlavi  works  are  either  versions  of  some  Avestan  works  now 
lost  to  us,  or  draw  their  thought  from  the  Avestan  sources.  Thus, 
the  Pahlavi  Bundahishn  is  the  epitome  of  the  Avestan  Damdat 
Nask,  subsequently  lost.  Similarly,  not  a  few  of  the  Pahlavi 
works  written  two  or  three  centuries  after  the  conquest  of  Persia 
by  the  Arabs  tenaciously  preserve  the  tradition  handed  down  by 
Sasanian  Persia.  These  are  characterized  by  two  layers  of  thought, 
one  traditional ;  and  the  other  representing  new  thought  current 
during  the  writers'  times.  The  Menuk-i  Khrat,  for  example, 
betrays  Moslem  influence  when  it  preaches  fatalism,  but  is  other- 
wise faithfully  voicing  the  sentiments  of  the  orthodox  Sasanian 
Church.  This  interweaving  of  old  ideas  with  the  new  ones, 
and  the  interpolations  and  additions  of  the  later  writers  in  the 
works  of  earlier  generations,  often  make  it  hopeless  to  disen- 
tangle the  complications  and  to  distinguish  between  the  opinions 
and  ideas  of  dififerent  periods. 

Thirteen  hundred  years  have  elapsed  since  the  dissolution  of 


xxxii  INTRODUCTION 

the  last  of  the  Zoroastrian  empires.  Henceforth  we  have  to 
record  the  rehgious  history  of  the  Zoroastrian  remnants  in  Persia 
and  the  Zoroastrian  settlers  of  India.  Zoroastrianism  sinks  with 
the  Zoroastrian  power,  and  a  long  period  of  obscurity  follows.  I 
have  named  it  a  period  of  decadence. 

Under  the  aegis  of  the  British  rule  in  India  Zoroastrianism 
emerges  once  again  with  the  prosperity  of  the  Parsi  community. 
I  have  hailed  this  as  the  period  of  the  revival  of  Zoroastrianism. 
These  various  periods,  which  represent  chronologically  dif- 
ferent stages  of  the  historic  development  of  the  religious  thought 
of  Iran,  from  remote  antiquity  down  to  the  immediate  present, 
will,  I  hope,  give  the  reader  a  general  and  comprehensive  view  of 
the  history  of  Zoroastrian  theology.  As  the  subjects  are  treated 
piecemeal  in  different  periods  according  to  the  natural  growth 
of  ideas  from  period  to  period,  the  reader  will  have  to  read  cross- 
wise when  he  needs  a  complete  account  of  any  particular  con- 
cept. For  example,  if  he  wants  to  know  all  that  the  Zoroastrian 
literature  has  to  say  about  Ormazd,  he  will  get  it  as  a  whole  not 
from  any  one  period,  but  from  all.  The  detailed  list  of  con- 
tents and  the  index  will  help  him  in  his  inquiry. 

Transliteration  of  the  technical  terms.    I  have  sought  to 
preserve  the  changes  that  these  have  undergone  during  successive 
periods,  and  have  variously  transliterated  them  in  the  treatment 
of  the  different  periods,  according  as  they  represent  the  Avestan, 
Pahlavi,  or  Persian  pronunciations.     Thus,  for  example,  Ahura 
Mazda  of  the  Gathic  and  Avestan  periods  becomes  Ormazd  in 
the  Pahlavi  period.     Angra  Mainyu  assumes  the  form  Ahriman 
in  the  subsequent  periods.     The  Avestan  Vohu  Manah  changes 
into  Pahlavi  Vohuman  and  into  Bahman  in  Persian  and  Gujarati. 
In  the  frequent  use  of  the  name  of  the  prophet,  I  have,  however, 
not  scrupulously  followed  this  method.     I  have  distinguished  be- 
tween the  Avestan  and  Pahlavi  forms  by  writing  Zarathushtra 
for  the  first,  and  Zaratusht  for  Pahlavi  as  they  actually  occur  in 
these  languages;  but  I  have  adopted  the  more   familiar  form 
Zoroaster  for  general  use.     Similarly,  I  have  called  the  religion 
of  the  prophet  Zoroastrianism.    With  a  view  to  simplicity  for  the 
general  reader,  I  have  avoided,  as  far  as  it  has  been  practicable, 
the   free  use  of   diacritical  marks,   and  have  employed   simple 
transcriptions  of  the  names  of  the  heavenly  beings,  persons,  and 
books  when  they  occur  in  the  text. 


PRE-GATHIC   PERIOD 

FROM  THE  EARLIEST  TIMES  TO  ABOUT   looo  B.C. 


ZOROASTRIAN    THEOLOGY 

CHAPTER  I 
THE  PRIMITIVE  FAITH  OF  IRAN 

Pre-Gathic  or  prehistoric  period.  In  the  primitive  period 
prehistoric  to  the  Gathas  we  are  traversing  the  region  of  myth, 
and  not  of  history,  when  we  attempt  to  write  about  the  religious 
beHefs  and  practices  of  the  people  of  Iran  before  the  coming  of 
Zoroaster.  It  is  a  period  that  can  scarcely  be  said  to  have  a 
history  in  the  modern  sense  of  the  term.  It  has  a  myth  instead. 
Everything  is  lost  in  the  mists  of  time.  We  are  here  groping 
our  way  through  a  dark  region  without  any  hope  of  rays  of 
light  to  illumine  our  path,  for  materials  fail  us,  and  it  is  likely 
that  no  authentic  information  will  ever  be  obtained  to  clear  up 
the  real  conditions  that  prevailed  in  this  gray  dawn  of  antiquity, 
important  though  such  information  would  be  for  the  study  of 
Zoroastrianism  and  Zoroastrian  theology  in  their  historical 
aspects. 

The  cleavage  in  the  Aryan  group.  What  little  information 
we  get  comes  from  Avestan  works  written  long  after  the  death 
of  Zarathushtra,  and  these  record  religious  beliefs  that  are  closely 
akin  to  those  of  the  Vedas.  Of  the  various  branches  of  the 
Indo-European  peoples  the  Aryan  settlers  in  the  realms  of  Iran 
and  India  lived  the  closest  and  longest  together  of  any  of  the 
Aryan  stock  that  were  associated  with  Western  Asia  in  the 
hoary  past.  They  were  the  members  of  one  and  the  same 
family,  thriving  under  a  common  parent,  and  they  spoke  prac- 
tically the  same  language.  Various  have  been  the  conjectures 
made  to  determine  the  time  and  place  when  this  group  lived 
together  in  peace,  before  Ahriman  spread  discord  in  their  happy 
family.  The  cleavage  caused  the  diverse  parties  to  leave  their 
common  habitat,  wherever  that  may  have  been,  and  to  migrate 

3 


4  THE  PRIMITIVE  FAITH  OF  IRAN 

to  Iran  on  one  side  and  to  India  on  the  other.  Very  little  is 
known  with  certitude,  and  in  all  probability  more  will  never  be 
known.  The  Avestan  texts  preserve  some  relics  of  the  common 
worship  and  common  legends  of  the  two  sister  peoples,  as  well 
as  allow  us  to  judge  some  of  the  strong  points  of  difference  that 
arose  among  them.  The  parallels  in  religious  thought  which  the 
Avestan  documents  offer  to  the  Vedic  concepts  are  many,  but 
equally  so  are  the  contrasts.  The  resemblance  is  great  indeed, 
but  the  difference  is  still  greater. 

The  Aryan  settlers  of  Iran.  The  period  when  this  branch  of 
the  Aryan  stock  came  to  Iran,  as  inferred  above,  is  equally 
unknown.  In  the  Avestan  texts  we  find  these  settlers  already 
located  in  Iran,  vigorously  following  agricultural  pursuits,  and 
practising  the  beliefs  that  they  had  brought  with  them  from 
their  ancient  home.  The  sacred  books  designate  these  pioneers 
in  Iranian  religion  as  the  paoiryo-tkaesha,  '  of  the  primitive 
faith.'  Gaya  Maretan,  the  primeval  man,  according  to  the 
Zoroastrian  anthropogeny,  was  also  the  first  ruler  of  Iran.  He 
was  the  first  mortal  to  hear  the  precepts  of  Ahura  Mazda,^  and 
his  legendary  successor  Haoshyangha  was  the  reputed  founder 
of  the  first  dynasty  called  para-dhata,  '  of  primitive  law.'  With 
Yima,  the  counterpart  of  Vedic  Yama,  Ahura  Mazda,  the  su- 
preme God  of  Ancient  Iran,  desired,  it  is  said,  to  establish 
his  covenant  and  requested  him  to  be  the  divine  messenger  of 
his  religion  to  the  people  of  Iran,  but  the  illustrious  king  pleaded 
his  inability  to  undertake  the  great  mission.^  In  a  sense  this 
king  of  immemorial  date  did  spread  the  divine  word  among  men 
for  their  betterment  in  both  worlds.^  Renowned  monarchs  like 
him  and  other  great  personages  are  the  forerunners  of  Zoroaster, 
and  the  work  done  by  them  forms  a  prelude  to  the  great  work 
that  the  prophet  of  Iran  was  to  undertake. 

Presumable  characteristics  of  their  religion.  We  shall  try 
to  gather  some  information  about  the  religious  beliefs  of  these 
people  who  inhabited  Iran  long  before  the  birth  of  Zarathushtra. 
The  Avestan  writers  record  traditions  of  their  predecessors  still 
current  in  their  time,  and  enable  us  to  form  some  idea  of  what 
doctrines  and  cults  prevailed  in  Iran  long  before  Zarathushtra 
preached  his  religion.     These  traditions  are  of  great  value  to 

>Yt.   13.  87. 

*Vd.  2.  3- 

'Dk.,  tr.  Peshotan  and  Darab  Sanjana,  vol.  7,  p.  435- 


THE  PRIMITIVE  FAITH  OF  IRAN  5 

us  because  they  are  nearer  to  the  pre-Zoroastrian  period  by 
well-nigh  three  thousand  years  than  we  are.  Much  of  what 
they  say,  it  is  true,  belongs  to  the  post-Zoroastrian  period  in 
form,  but  is  pre-Zoroastrian  in  substance,  even  though  a  good 
deal  of  what  they  repeat  regarding  the  remote  past  could  not 
be  free  from  the  bias  of  the  sentiment  and  beliefs  that  might 
have  been  prevailing  among  them.  For  instance,  when  these 
writers,  themselves  the  votaries  of  Ardvi  Sura  Anahita,  or  guard- 
ian spirit  of  the  heavenly  stream,  depict  the  legendary  king 
Haoshyangha,  reported  by  the  Zoroastrian  chronology  to  have 
existed  some  thousands  of  years  before  them,  as  sacrificing  unto 
this  genius  of  water  in  a  certain  manner,  they  may,  in  these 
special  passages  in  the  Younger  Avesta,  be  crediting  the  ancient 
king  and  the  people  of  his  time  with  their  own  ideas  about  this 
female  divinity.*  Looking  from  their  own  perspective,  they  may 
thus  be  attributing  to  the  earlier  generation  some  views  that 
could  never  have  prevailed  in  that  dim  past.  We  should  not 
class  their  statement  about  the  religion  of  a  king  who  is  remote 
from  them  by  millenniums  as  reliable  history,  but,  nevertheless, 
it  at  least  serves  to  familiarize  us  with  the  views  that  our  an- 
cestors held  three  thousand  years  ago  about  the  religious  beliefs 
of  the  period  that  preceded  their  time. 

Worship  of  the  personifications  of  nature  and  other  heav- 
enly beings.  Fire  and  water,  sun  and  moon,  earth  and  heaven, 
as  well  as  all  the  forces  of  nature,  have  their  votaries  in 
primitive  Iran.  People  instinctively  paid  homage  to  these  deified 
elements.  Mithra,  Airyaman,  Haoma,  Verethraghna,  Parendi, 
Nairyosangha,  Vayu,  Ushah,  and  other  old  Aryan  divinities,  as 
also  Anahita,  the  female  divinity  of  Semitic  origin,  were  individ- 
ually worshipped  in  Iran.  On  the  other  hand,  Drvaspa,  and  Ashi 
Vanghuhi  are  pre-Zoroastrian  angels  of  pure  Iranian  extraction, 
for  they  have  no  counterparts  in  the  Vedic  pantheon.  The  Iranian 
genius  had  not  yet  developed  the  concept  of  one  supreme  being 
who  excelled  all  others.  Every  one  of  the  divinities  was  inde- 
pendent in  his  own  sphere,  and  claimed  especial  reverence  and 
sacrifice  from  his  devotees.  Each  moved  among  equals  that 
knew  no  superior.  There  was  no  central  sovereign  figure  in 
whom  all  divine  power  and  authority  was  concentrated.  Kings 
there  were  many,  but  the  king  of  kings  was  yet  to  come.     The 

*  Yt.  5-  21-23. 


6  THE  PRIMITIVE  FAITH  OF  IRAN 

people  of  Iran  knew  him  not,  for  Zarathushtra  was  yet  to  be 
born. 

Designations  of  the  divinities.  More  than  one  are  the  epi- 
thets by  which  the  divine  beings  are  generally  known.  The 
name  Ahura,  or  lord,  the  first  element  of  the  later  compound 
expression,  Ahura  Mazda,  the  supreme  godhead  of  Zoroastrian- 
ism,  is  the  title  most  commonly  applied  to  the  divinities  to  whom 
the  primitive  Iranians  sacrificed.  The  word  is  the  counterpart 
of  the  Vedic  Asiira.  The  Indo-Iranian  divinities  Mithra  and 
Apam  Napat  are  thus  termed  the  ahiiras,  or  the  lords.^  The 
term  is  even  loosely  employed  to  designate  the  temporal  lords  or 
chiefs,  as  when  King  Haosravah  is  called  an  ahura;  ^  and  sim- 
ilarly the  chiefs  are  called  by  the  same  appellation.'^ 

Baga,  corresponding  to  the  Vedic  Bhaga,  is  another  designation 
for  the  celestial  beings  in  general.  The  term  means  '  dispenser ' 
and  goes  back  to  the  early  Indo-European  period. 

Yazata,  Vedic  Yajata,  meaning  the  *  adorable  one,'  is  still  an- 
other title  that  is  commonly  applied  to  the  spiritual  beings. 

Kings  and  heroes  pay  homage  unto  the  divinities.  Haosh- 
yangha,  Takhma  Urupi,  Yima,  Thraetaona,  and  Keresaspa  sac- 
rifice unto  Vayu,  a  personification  of  the  wind.®  The  serpent  king 
Azhi  Dahaka,  the  embodiment  of  a  despotic  foreign  rule  over 
Iran  for  a  thousand  years,  also  sacrifices  unto  him  and  asks  of 
him  a  boon.  This  tyrant  usurper  fancied  that  the  divinity  who 
protected  the  land  of  Iran  would  be  inclined  to  help  him  if  he 
prostrated  himself  before  him ;  but  the  spirit  of  the  wind  re- 
ferred to  did  not  grant  him  his  boon.^  Haoshyangha,  Yima, 
Thraetaona,  Keresaspa,  Usa,  Haosravah,  Tusa,  and  Vafra  Navaza 
invoke  Ardvi  Sura  Anahita  and  are  granted  their  prayers,  but 
the  ofl['erings  of  the  foreign  tyrants  Azhi  Dahaka,  Franrasyan, 
and  Vaesaka  are  rejected.^"  Hvarekhshaeta,  the  genius  of  the 
sun,  Atar,  the  angel  of  fire,  and  other  popular  divinities  are  not 
expressly  mentioned  in  the  extant  Avestan  literature  as  having 
been  adored  by  the  pre-Zoroastrian  people  of  Iran.  Yet  this 
should  not  lead  us  to  dogmatize  that  they  were  unknown  to 

"Ys.  I.  5;  2.  s;  3-  7;  65.  12;  70.6;  Yt.  10.  25,  69;  19.  52;  G.  3-  8. 
•Yt.  19.  77. 

'Yt.  5.  85;  8.  36;  13.  63;  14-  39- 
"  Yt.  IS.  7-17.  23-29. 
"Yt.  15.  19-21. 
"Yt.  5.  21-66. 


THE  PRIMITIVE  FAITH  OF  IRAN  7 

them,  or  that  they  therefore  necessarily  originated  with  Zara- 
thushtra.  The  fire-cult,  for  example,  is  undoubtedly  Indo- 
Iranian,  and  the  fire-priest  dthravan  must  have  tended  the  sacred 
flame  at  the  altar  in  Iran  long  before  the  coming  of  the  prophet. 
In  fact  Zarathushtra's  ancestors  had  a  ritual  in  honour  of  fire  in 
common  with  the  Vedic  athravan  in  their  primitive  home,  long 
before  his  forebears  migrated  to  Iran. 

Form  of  sacrifice.  The  offerings  generally  made  to  the 
heavenly  beings  consisted  of  libations,  Baresman  twigs,  and 
Haoma,  for  the  cult  of  the  divine  plant  Haoma  was  shared  by 
the  Vedic  people  in  common  with  the  Iranians.  Four  great 
persons  of  this  period,  Vivahvant,  Athwya,  Thrita,  and  Pouru- 
shaspa  offered  the  Haoma  sacrifice,  and  each  had  an  illustrious 
son  born  unto  him  as  a  reward."  Haoshyangha,  Yima,  Thrae- 
taona,  and  Haosravah  sacrificed  to  Drvaspa,  the  genius  of  cattle, 
a  hundred  male  horses,  a  thousand  oxen,  ten  thousand  small 
cattle,  besides  the  oifering  of  libations.^^ 

The  Iranians  dethrone  'daeva'  from  the  pedestal  of  divinity. 
One  of  the  Indo-Iranian  epithets  for  divinity  in  general  is  Av. 
daeva  (Vedic  deva),  literally  meaning  the  'shining  one.'  The 
word  was  transplanted  with  the  migratory  wave  into  Iran,  and 
used  in  a  totally  derogatory  sense  as  '  demon.'  It  was  metamor- 
phosed from  the  realm  of  goodness  and  light  to  that  of  evil  and 
darkness,  nor  has  it  ever  conveyed  the  idea  of  divinity  to  the 
Iranian  mind,  since  the  term  migrated  to  Iran  with  the  pre- 
historic folk.  It  was  divested  of  all  its  good  meaning,  and  arbi- 
trarily degraded  to  mean  just  what  it  etymologically  does  not 
mean.  Thus  the  Indo-Iranian  daevas  became  the  malignant 
spirits  among  the  Iranians.  Various  explanations  have  been 
suggested  for  the  cause  of  this  degradation.  At  all  events  the 
fact  remains  that  the  Iranian  branch  for  some  reason  or  other 
avenged  itself  upon  its  sister  community  by  branding  this  car- 
dinal word  as  evil.  The  term  daeva  henceforth  meant  a  demon, 
and  the  subsequent  literature  and  the  languages  and  dialects  de- 
rived from  Avestan  have  always  used  the  word  to  designate  demon 
in  general.  Once  deprived  of  its  good  connotation,  it  has  never 
regained  its  original  true  significance.  The  Indian  divinities 
Indra,  Sharva,  and  Nasatya  were  removed  accordingly  from  the 
realm  of  goodness  to  that  of  evil  under  the  names  Indra,  Saurva, 

"Ys.  9.  4,  7,  10,  13.  ''Yt.  9-  3-16,  21-24. 


8  THE  PRIMITIVE  FAITH  OF  IRAN 

and  Naonghaithya.  Wicked  men,  as  well  as  the  marauding  non- 
Iranian  hordes  who  devastated  the  lands  of  these  Aryan  settlers 
o£  Iran,  were  dubbed  the  daevas,  or  demons  in  human  form. 
The  faithful  had  to  repel  the  frequent  inroads  of  the  nomads  of 
Mazana  and  Varena,  or  modern  Mazandaran  and  Gilan  near  the 
Caspian  Sea,  who  poured  down  in  great  numbers  and  pillaged  the 
possessions  of  the  Iranians.  These  were  the  daevas  in  particular 
with  whom  the  early  kings  from  the  time  of  Haoshyangha  had 
constantly  to  fight.  Takhma  Urupi,  who  offered  an  unrelenting 
opposition  to  idolatry  in  any  form  and  waged  successful  wars 
against  such  devils,  was  styled  the  demon-binder.^^  Sorcery,  the 
delight  of  the  demons,  was  reprimanded  in  the  sacred  texts,  and 
the  yatu,  '  sorcerer,'  and  the  pairika,  '  fairy,'  were  constantly 
assailed. 

"  Shah-namah,  tr.  Warner,  vol.  i,  p.  126,  London,  1905. 


THE   GATHIC  PERIOD 

ABOUT   looo  B.C. 


CHAPTER  II 

ZOROASTRIANISM  IN  ITS  EARLY  MISSIONARY 

STAGE 

Zarathushtra  gives  Mazda's  message  to  mankind.  The 
Later  Avestan  texts  speak  of  the  precursors  of  Zarathushtra,  the 
prophet  of  Ancient  Iran.  In  the  heavenly  world  Ahura  Mazda 
taught  the  divine  rehgion  to  Sraosha,  who  is  called  the  teacher  of 
religion  to  mankind  and  really  is  the  personification  of  obedience 
to  religion.^  The  creator  imparted  his  Mazda-worshipping  re- 
ligion to  Haoma  also.^  The  primeval  man,  Gaya  Maretan,  was 
the  first  to  accept  the  divine  precepts  on  earth.^  But  Yima  the 
king  was  the  first  among  mortals  whom  the  Lord  asked  to  be  the 
prophet  of  his  religion.*  That  glorious  sovereign,  however, 
pleaded  his  inability  to  propagate  the  faith  of  Mazda.^  This 
great  work  was  reserved  for  Zarathushtra,  who  brought  Mazda's 
divine  message  to  mankind  centuries  later.  All  creation  rejoiced 
at  the  prophet's  birth  and  hailed  him,  at  his  advent,  as  the 
proper  person  to  be  the  messenger  of  the  Mazda-worshipping 
religion  throughout  the  seven  zones.® 

Zarathushtra  planted  his  new  faith  in  Iran  at  a  date  ap- 
proximating looo  B.C.,  though  some  learned  scholars,  basing 
their  arguments  on  traditional  sources,  are  inclined  to  assign  a 
date  as  late  as  the  seventh  century  B.C.,  or,  to  be  more  exact, 
660-583  B.C.  The  Gathic  hymns  are  the  noble  utterances  of  the 
new  religion,  and  breathe  the  personal  tone  of  a  prophet.  The 
towering  individuality  of  Mazda's  messenger  is  seen  moving  as 
a  great  historic  personage  in  the  midst  of  joys  and  sorrows, 
success  and  failure,  now  complaining  before  the  Lord  on  account 
of  the  scantiness  of  his  resources,  the  fewness  of  his  followers, 
and  the  opposition  of  his  adversaries,  yet  again  with  supreme 
satisfaction  assuring  his  Heavenly  Father  of  the  hopeful  outlook 
of  his  sacred  mission. 


•Ys.  57.  24;  Yt.  li.  I.     'Yt.   13.  87.  °Vd.  2.  3. 

Ys.   9.   26.  *  Vd.  2.  I,  2.  •  Yt.  13.  94. 


2 


II 


12    ZOROASTRIANISM  IN  ITS  EARLY  MISSIONARY  STAGE 

The  proselytizing  zeal  of  the  crusaders.  Success  attended 
the  prophetic  mission,  when  Zarathushtra  won  as  a  convert 
Vishtaspa,  the  king  of  kings  of  Iran,  together  with  his  royal 
consort  Hutaosa.  This  was  the  crowning  event  in  the  establish- 
ment of  Zoroastrianism.  Conversions  to  the  new  rehgion  fol- 
lowed rapidly  as  a  natural  sequel,  when  it  became  known  that 
the  ruling  house  of  Iran  had  embraced  Zoroaster's  faith. 
Vishtaspa  is  spoken  of  in  the  Later  Avestan  texts  as  the  very 
arm  and  pillar  of  Zoroastrianism,  the  defender  of  the  Faith, 
who  gave  an  impetus  to  the  religion,  which  until  then  had  ex- 
perienced only  an  extremely  chequered  career,  and  who  made 
the  faith  known  and  renowned  throughout  the  worlds  With 
all  the  zeal  and  fire  characteristic  of  converts  Zarathushtra's 
followers  worked  actively  for  the  promulgation  of  the  faith 
both  within  and  outside  of  the  country.  The  zealous  king 
headed  the  list  of  the  crusaders,  and  Zoroastrianism  soon  became 
a  church  militant.  Force  and  persuasion,  the  two  main  factors 
generally  used  for  the  propagation  of  a  religion,  were  resorted 
to,  until  within  a  short  time  the  creed  of  Mazda  spread  far  and 
wide.^  Zoroastrianism  implanted  itself  not  alone  among  the 
Iranians  that  practised  the  primitive  faith,  but  also  among  the 
daeva-worshippers,  or  accursed  followers  of  demoniacal  beliefs, 
and  even  among  the  Turanians,  the  national  rivals  of  Iran. 
The  prophet  immortalizes  in  his  holy  hymns  the  Turanian  chief- 
tain Fryana  and  his  family,  who  came  over  to  his  religion.^ 
Setting  aside  the  more  or  less  fabulous  stories  of  the  conversion 
of  some  of  the  greatest  Indian  sages  and  Greek  philosophers,  we 
can  safely  assert  that  the  missionary  conquests  of  the  immediate 
disciples  of  the  prophet  were  great  indeed.  The  holy  wars  of  the 
religion  against  Turan  and  the  neighbouring  countries  introduced 
the  Avesta  and  the  sacred  Fire  into  distant  lands. ^° 

Zarathushtra  speaks  of  his  faith  in  terms  of  a  universal 
religion.  The  prophet  devoutly  acknowledges  the  new  religion 
as  having  come  to  him  from  Mazda,  and  beseeches  the  Lord, 
together  with  Asha  as  the  genius  of  righteousness,  to  let  him 
know  their  divine  will,   so  that  he  and  his   disciples   may  be 

'  Yt.  13.  99,  100. 

"  Cf.  Shah-namah,  tr.  Warner,  vol.  5,  pp.  72,  76,  77,  85,  London,  1910. 
*  Ys.  46.  12. 

*'  For  the  history  of  this  religious  propaganda  see  Jackson,  Zoroaster, 
pp.  80-92,  New  York,  1899. 


ZOROASTRIANISM  IN  ITS  EARLY  MISSIONARY  STAGE    13 

able  the  better  to  teach  the  religion  to  man."  The  prophet  is 
convinced  that  the  religion  which  his  Heavenly  Father  has  com- 
missioned him  to  preach  is  the  best  for  all  mankind.^"  Ahura 
Mazda  has  promised  that  he  will  give  the  riches  of  beatitude 
for  all  time  to  the  devout  followers  of  the  new  faith. ^^  From 
the  very  mouth  of  Mazda  the  prophet  yearns  to  know  the 
divine  truth,  in  order  that  he  and  his  adherents  may  convert  all 
living  men  to  the  excellent  faith. ^*  But  the  ardent  desire  of  the 
prophet  was  not  to  be  fulfilled  at  the  moment,  nor  to  be  accom- 
plished in  full  measure  in  after  ages.  Though  possessed  of  all 
the  best  elements  that  fitted  it  to  be  a  world  creed,  Zoroastrianism 
has  never  shown  any  signs  of  becoming  a  universal  religion.  In 
the  midst  of  the  vicissitudes  of  fortune,  it  has  been  a  national 
religion  at  best.  Little  short  of  a  miracle  has  saved  it  from  total 
extinction,  and  various  causes  have  combined  to  reduce  it  to  the 
narrowest  limits  to-day  as  the  communal  religion  of  a  hundred 
thousand  souls.  This  fact  will  be  brought  out  more  prominently 
in  the  treatment  of  the  religious  development  during  the  subse- 
quent periods. 

Ys.  49-  6.  ''Ys.  53-  i- 

Ys.  44.   10.  "  Ys.  31.  3. 


11 
12 


CHAPTER  III 
ZOROASTRIANISM  IN  THE  GATHAS 

The  Gathas,  or  the  Zoroastrian  psalms.  These  metrical 
hymns,  seventeen  in  number,  arranged  in  five  groups,  have 
come  to  us  from  Zarathushtra  himself.  They  constitute  the 
oldest  and  the  most  hallowed  part  of  the  Zoroastrian  scriptures. 
They  served  probably  as  the  actual  texts  of  the  sermons  that  the 
prophet  himself  delivered  before  the  people  that  pressed  from 
near  and  from  afar  to  hear  him  speak.^  An  exalted,  buoyant, 
pithy,  and  terse  spirit  characterizes  these  hymns,  which  sustain 
throughout  a  dignified,  cheerful,  and  abstract  tone.  The  Gathic 
concept  of  the  godhead  surpasses  in  point  of  spirituality  and 
individuaHty  all  that  is  known  up  to  that  date  of  the  Indo- 
Iranian  divinities.  The  Amesha  Spentas,  or  Immortal  Holy 
Ones,  as  the  highest  abstract  impersonations  of  virtues,  are 
equalled  by  none  in  sublime  grandeur.  The  doctrine  of  the 
immortality  of  the  soul  as  preached  in  the  Gathas  excels  the 
similar  eschatological  concept  of  all  ancient  peoples,  in  point 
of  clearness,  precision,  and  logical  thoroughness. 

The  ethics  of  the  Gathas.  Zarathushtra  teaches  that  the 
settled  life  of  the  agriculturist  is  superior  to  the  unsettled  living 
of  the  nomads,  and  that  peasantry  is  better  than  pillage.  The 
Gathas,  as  embodying  the  precepts  of  the  prophet,  introduce  a 
great  reform,  a  notable  advance  over  anything  hitherto  known 
in  the  field  of  human  ethics.  In  these  hymns  is  felt  the  impulse 
of  an  onward  movement  in  human  morals  from  collective  to 
personal  morality,  or  from  custom  to  conscience.  The  crude 
form  of  primitive  group-ethics  is  supplanted  by  a  higher  type 
of  individual  morality.  As  you  sow,  so  shall  you  reap,  is  the 
Gathic  dictum.^ 

The  ideal  of  life  that  Zoroaster  puts  forth  is  not  to  be  reached 

'  Ys.  45.  I ;  cf.  Pischel  and  Geldner,  Vediscbe  Studien,  i.  287,  Stutt- 
gart, 1889. 

*Ys.  30.  10,  11;  31.  14,  20;  43.  5;  45.  7;  51-  6,  8,  9. 

14 


ZOROASTRIANISM  IN  THE  GATHAS  15 

by  ecstasy  and  meditation  in  the  solitary  jungle,  but  is  to  be 
worked  out  in  struggle  and  suffering  in  this  world.  The  re- 
generation of  society  is  ultimately  to  be  brought  about  from 
within  by  the  conscious  effort  of  man.  On  the  whole,  each  and 
every  individual  member  of  the  great  family  of  humanity  is  to 
provide  the  practical  panacea  for  the  amelioration  of  the  existing 
condition  of  society,  and  each  and  every  individual  is  obligated 
to  carry  on  incessantly  the  work  of  redeeming  the  world  in  pur- 
suance of  the  divine  will.  For  this  purpose  it  is,  that  man,  as  the 
climax  and  crown  of  creation,  is  created  by  Ormazd. 

The  prophet  of  Iran  is  not  one  to  advocate  the  cloistered 
virtues  of  the  hermit  that  flees  from  the  temptations  of  the  world, 
and  who  lives  secure  in  the  place  of  his  retirement,  sunk  in  deep 
meditation,  absorbed  in  brooding  over  the  abstruse  problems  of 
life,  and  remaining  utterly  oblivious  of  the  varied  experiences  of 
society.  True  virtue  lies  not  in  mere  meditation  that  blights  all 
spontaneity  of  action ;  on  the  contrary,  constant  struggle  with  the 
world  to  fight  the  way  to  victory  is  man's  true  method  of  reaching 
the  goal,  rather  than  flight  in  the  search  of  liberation.  Self- 
development  is  a  manly  virtue,  self-effacement  is  weakness.  The 
practical  genius  of  Iran  never  embraced  the  inactive  life  of  the 
monastery. 

The  Zoroastrian  saint  is  more  a  saint  in  action  than  in  thought. 
He  is  the  one  whose  mission  for  the  advancement  of  the  world 
is  to  live  in  society  and  to  minister  to  the  wants  and  grievances 
of  the  less  fortunate  of  mankind.  He  is  not  the  recluse  who 
assumes  the  tonsure,  dons  the  ash-coloured  robe,  and  besmears 
his  face.  The  Zoroastrian  saint  does  not  sacrifice  for  the  self- 
centred  self,  he  sacrifices  for  others.  The  ascetic  that  selfishly 
seeks  his  own  personal  salvation,  without  contributing  his  mite  to 
the  general  uplift  of  humanity  and  the  regeneration  of  society, 
as  well  as  the  redemption  of  the  universe,  is  not  so  much  the 
beloved  of  Ormazd  as  is  the  active  saint  who  lives  in  the  world 
of  joy  and  sorrow,  without  separating  himself  from  the  world  of 
activity.  The  latter  develops  social  and  domestic  virtues,  profits 
by  the  variegated  experiences  of  life,  strengthens  his  character, 
does  not  merely  contemplate  righteousness,  but  carries  it  into 
action  through  dispelling  every  thought  of  wickedness  from  his 
mind.  The  true  devotee  of  religion  does  not  withdraw  from 
the  company  of  men  in  seeking  the  blessed  company  of  Ormazd. 


i6  ZOROASTRIANISM  IN  THE  GATHAS 

Saintly  life  can  be  led,  he  knows,  even  in  the  midst  of  the  busy 
world.  The  best  service  of  God  is  to  be  rendered  by  active 
service  to  God's  creation.  The  legitimate  joys  of  this  world  are 
not  to  be  stifled;  life  is  pleasant  and  enjoyable,  as  has  been 
proved,  and  living  in  the  midst  of  the  world's  joys  and  sorrows 
enables  one  to  touch  the  various  chords  of  human  life.  In  this 
wholesome  view  life  becomes  more  full,  more  complete. 

It  is  not  a  sound  system  of  philosophy  that  attaches  all  pos- 
sible interest  to  the  next  world  alone,  deriding  this,  and  remaining 
out  of  touch  with  real  life.  Philosophy  must  first  concern  itself 
with  the  immediate  issues  of  life.  It  cannot  ignore  them.  Wrong 
is  done  by  transferring  man's  interest  completely  from  this 
world  to  the  world  to  come.  Such  a  course  of  procedure 
systematically  increases  human  weakness.  When  every  hope 
is  exclusively  centred  in  the  world  to  come,  the  situation  be- 
comes unfavourable  to  any  great  material  and  economical  de- 
velopment in  the  world  in  which  we  have  our  being,  and  results 
in  the  discouragement  of  social  advancement.  Religion  should 
foster  civic  virtues  in  man.  In  addition  to  making  mankind  holy 
and  righteous,  religion  should  aim  at  making  mankind  patriotic 
and  heroic.  Zoroaster  the  realist,  the  practical  common-sense 
thinker,  does  not  encourage  exaggerated  unworldliness.  Earthly 
life  has  a  greater  value  and  a  deeper  significance  than  the  ascetic 
would  acknowledge  or  believe.  The  ideal  of  human  perfection 
has  never  verged  on  asceticism  in  the  religion  of  Iran.  Asceticism 
with  its  weariness  of  the  earthly  life  saps  civic  virtues.  The 
lethargy  and  inactivity  consequent  on  such  a  belief  are  the  bane 
of  a  society  and  Zoroaster  legislates  against  them. 

To  be  up  and  doing  is  the  philosophy  of  man's  real  life. 
Active  work,  hard  labour,  strenuous  efforts  are  the  virtues — and 
the  paramount  virtues.  No  kind  of  stigma  is  attached  to  labour, 
but,  on  the  contrary,  labour  of  every  description  is  extolled  and 
sanctified.  Agriculture  is  announced  as  the  most  laudable  form 
of  work.  He  who  sows  the  fields  that  lie  fallow,  who  tills  his 
farms,  prunes  his  vineyards,  ploughs  the  furrows,  pastures  his 
flocks,  extirpates  the  noxious  creatures  that  infest  the  earth,  and 
turns  barren  deserts  into  fertile  fields  as  a  true  labourer,  is  the 
one  that  furthers  the  cause  of  Righteousness.  Every  good  work 
tends  to  the  furtherance  of  the  Kingdom  of  Righteousness  and 
deals  a  blow  to  the  Kingdom  of  Wickedness.    It  increases  the  joy 


ZOROASTRIANISM  IN  THE  GATHAS  17 

of  the  angels  and  cripples  the  power  of  the  demons.  Exertion  and 
not  inertia  is  its  watchword.  Spiritual  virility  and  not  spiritual 
inactivity  is  the  ideal.  Zoroaster  teaches  these  first  principles  of 
the  advancement  of  human  civilization  as  religious  command- 
ments. Progress  and  civilization  become,  thus,  a  duty  for  the 
followers  of  the  ancient  Iranian  creed. 

Zoroastrianism  is  active,  practical,  and  militant.  Humanity 
is  Ahura  Mazda's  standing  army.  Man  or  woman  is  a  per- 
petual soldier  in  its  doctrinal  ranks.  Every  individual  serves 
in  the  army  in  his  or  her  age  and  place.  To  further  righteous- 
ness even  by  a  hair's  breadth,  or  to  trample  down  wickedness 
however  little,  are  accounted  supreme  achievements  in  the  exist- 
ence of  the  individual.  The  primeval  man  was  the  first  to 
enlist  himself  as  a  soldier  and  enter  the  battlefield.  He  sounded 
the  first  trumpet  and  opened  the  warfare  against  the  Kingdom 
of  Wickedness.  The  myriads  of  individuals  that  have  followed 
him  in  the  aeons  of  time  do  incessant  battle  against  the  Sovereign 
of  Evil  and  the  personification  of  imperfection.  The  last  man, 
who  will  appear  at  the  end  of  the  cycle  of  the  world  to  deal  the 
final  blow  to  the  tottering  Kingdom  of  Wickedness,  will  hoist 
the  flag  of  the  final  victory  of  good  over  evil.  The  darkness  of 
the  night  of  the  Kingdom  of  Wickedness  will  then  be  no  more. 
The  sun  will  never  set  upon  the  Kingdom  of  Righteousness. 
Such,  at  least,  is  the  tone  that  runs  through  the  Gathas. 

Phases  of  the  prehistoric  Indo-Iranian.  cult  regarding 
which  the  Gathas  are  silent.  With  the  exception  of  the  six 
celestial  ministers  of  Ahura  Mazda  and  the  angels  Sraosha, 
Atar,  Ashi,  together  with  a  couple  of  other  beings  of  incipient 
individuality,  the  Gathas  do  not  mention,  even  by  name,  any  of 
the  divinities  who  become  prominent  figures  in  the  Later  Avestan 
period.  The  Younger  Avestan  texts  depict  Zarathushtra  sacri- 
ficing to  the  Indo-Iranian  divinity  Haoma.^  But  Haoma  is  not 
definitely  mentioned  by  name  in  the  Gathas,  though  some  West- 
ern scholars  are  inclined  to  take  Ys.  32.  14  as  containing  an 
allusion  to  Haoma  because  of  the  adjective  duraosha,  '  far  from 
death,'  which  is  his  standing  epithet.  Vayu,  or  the  Wind,  is 
shown  in  these  later  passages  as  exhorting  the  prophet  to  invoke 
him.*  Yet  he  does  not  find  a  corner  on  the  Gathic  stage.  There 
is  no  reference  to  the  sacred  shirt  and  girdle,  the  visible  symbols 

•Ys.  9.  16-21.  *Yt.  15.  49-52. 


i8  ZOROASTRIANISM  IN  THE  GATHAS 

of  every  Zoroastrian's  orthodox  belief.  The  Gathas  make  no 
mention  of  the  Fravashis.  The  Later  Avestan  texts,  moreover, 
picture  Ahura  Mazda  as  saying  that  the  Fravashis,  or  guardian 
angels,  stood  by  him  at  the  beginning  of  creation,  and  had  it  not 
been  for  their  help,  he,  the  almighty  Lord,  could  not  have  done 
many  things.    We  could  multiply  such  instances  by  the  score. 

By  way  of  summary,  it  may  be  said  by  the  historical  student 
who  devoutly  believes  in  Zoroastrianism  as  his  own  faith  that 
the  Gathas  are  a  collection  of  short,  detached  formulas  calcu- 
lated to  infuse  devotional  fervour  and  moral  ardour  in  man, 
but  in  their  sacred  stanzas  the  prophet  inculcates  his  fundamental 
doctrines  and  ethical  principles  in  a  concise  and  adumbrated 
form.  This  abridged  form  may  account  for  the  absence  of  any 
ritual  in  the  Gathas,  and  for  their  silence  regarding  many  social 
and  religious  practices  that  are  interwoven  with  the  daily  life 
of  the  faithful.  Yet  such  a  plea  does  not  explain  everything. 
The  omission  of  much  that  has  been  referred  to  above,  and  also 
the  absence  of  the  names  of  Mithra,  Verethraghna,  and  some 
other  Indo-Iranian  divinities,  who  attain  in  the  Later  Avestan 
period  to  an  eminence  that  eclipses  the  greatest  of  the  divinities 
of  pure  Zoroastrian  extraction,  are  significant  indeed,  and  we 
shall  recur  to  the  question  when  we  come  to  the  Later  Avestan 
period. 


CHAPTER  IV 
AHURA  MAZDA 

Ahura  Mazda  is  the  name  of  the  supreme  godhead  of 
Zoroastrianism.  We  have  already  mentioned  in  connection  with 
the  history  of  the  name  Ahura,  in  Indo-Iranian  times,  that  the 
significance  of  the  first  element  of  this  compound  is  '  lord.'  The 
second  name,  Mazda,  is  Iranian  alone  and  means  '  wisdom.'  The 
word  Mazda,  as  a  designation  of  the  divine  concept,  is  supposed 
to  have  been  in  the  atmosphere  of  religious  thought  as  early  as  a 
thousand  years  before  the  Christian  era.  Mazdaka,  a  derivative 
of  Mazda,  occurs  twice  in  Median  proper  names  in  the  Assyrian 
inscriptions  of  Sargon  as  early  as  715  B.C.  The  Assyrian  divine 
name  Assara  Mazas,  which  occurs  in  an  inscription  of  the  reign 
of  Assurbanipal  purporting  to  record  events  in  the  still  more 
remote  past,  is  further  cited  as  a  possible  proof  that  Mazda,  the 
second  element  of  the  Zoroastrian  name  of  the  godhead,  may 
not  have  been  the  creation  of  Zarathushtra.^ 

The  collocation  Ahura  Mazda  means  literally  '  the  Lord 
Wisdom,'  i.e.  'the  Wise  Lord.'  This  compound  name,  which 
coalesced  into  the  composite  form  of  Auramazda  in  the  time  of 
the  Achaemenians,  as  shown  by  the  Old  Persian  Inscriptions, 
and  into  Ormazd  in  the  Pahlavi  and  later  Persian  works,  always 
preserves  the  separate  forms  in  the  ancient  Gathic  texts.  The 
forms  Ahura  or  Mazda,  respectively,  or  again  the  combinations 
Ahura  Mazda  or  Mazda  Ahura,  as  the  case  may  be,  are  variously 
used  in  the  Gathas  without  any  distinction,  to  designate  simply 
the  Supreme  Being. 

Ahura  Mazda  is  the  Being  par  excellence.  Ahura  Mazda 
sits  at  the  apex  among  the  celestial  beings  of  Garonmana.  He  is 
not  begotten,  nor  is  there  one  like  unto  him.  Beyond  him,  apart 
from  him,  and  without  him,  nothing  exists.  He  is  the  Supreme 
Being  through  whom  everything  exists.  He  is  brighter  than  the 
brightest  of  creation,  higher  than  the  highest  heavens,  older  than 

*  Cf.   Moulton,   Early  Zoroastrianism,  pp.  30,  31,  422-424,   London,   1913. 

19 


20  AHURA  MAZDA 

the  oldest  in  the  universe.  He  is  the  best  one.^  He  knows  no 
elder,  he  has  no  equal.  There  is  none  to  dispute  his  supremacy 
and  contest  his  place.  Nor  is  there  one  to  struggle  successfully 
with  him  for  the  mastery  of  the  heavens.  He  is  the  first  and 
foremost.  He  is  the  most  perfect  being.  He  is  changeless.^ 
He  is  the  same  now  and  for  ever.*  He  was,  he  is,  and  he  will 
be  the  same  transcendent  being,  moving  all,  yet  moved  by  none. 
In  the  midst  of  the  manifold  changes  wrought  by  him  in  the 
universe,  the  Lord  God  remains  changeless  and  unaffected,  for 
he  is  mighty.^  He  will  decide  victory  between  the  rival  hosts 
of  good  and  evil.®  He  is  the  most  worthy  of  invocation,'^  and 
the  first  possessor  of  felicity  and  joy.^  There  is  none  before  him.* 
He  is  the  greatest  of  all.^''  He  is  the  only  God  proper,  than 
whom  there  is  none  higher.  Everything  comes  from  him  and 
through  him.  He  is  the  lord  of  all.  Many  are  his  attributes. 
They  are  not  accidents  of  his  being,  as  will  be  shown  below, 
but  are  his  very  essence. 

Ahura  Mazda  is  a  spirit.  There  is  no  anthropomorphic  trait 
in  the  lofty  conception  of  Ahura  Mazda,  for  he  is  devoid  of  all 
human  imperfections.  He  is  superhuman.  True  it  is  that  he 
is  implored  to  proclaim  the  truth  directly  by  word  of  mouth  to 
his  prophet,^^  and  to  speak  through  the  very  tongue  of  his  own 
mouth,  so  that  Zoroaster  and  his  disciples  may  be  the  better  able 
to  convince  mankind  of  the  great  truth  of  his  mission.^^  He  is 
also  spoken  of  as  distributing  good  and  evil  to  men  by  his  own 
hands,^^  and  as  observing  with  his  eyes  all  things  hidden  and 
open.^*  He  lives  in  the  heavenly  realm,  and  wears  the  firmament 
as  his  garment.^^  Zoroaster  longs  to  behold  his  place,  or  throne, 
in  heaven,^®  because  Ahura  Mazda  dwells  in  the  straight  paths  of 
Righteousness.^^  Expressions  like  these  are  symbolical  and  they 
are  not  to  be  taken  literally,  since  Ahura  Mazda,  as  the  whole 
tone  of  the  Gathas  proves,  is  to  be  seen  or  conceived  only  through 
the  mind's  eye.  The  finite  can  describe  the  infinite  through 
finite  analogies  and  similes  alone. 

Ahura    Mazda   is   the    creator.    He   is    the   author   of   the 


'  Ys.  28.  8. 

'  Ys.  29.  10. 

"Ys.  43.  4. 

•  Ys.  45.  10. 

»  Ys.  28.  3- 

'*  Ys.  31.  13 

*Ys.  31.  7. 

"Ys.  45.  6. 

"Ys.  oo.  5. 

'  Ys.  43-  4. 

^^Ys.  28.  II. 

"Ys.  28.  5- 

•Ys.  44-   15. 

"Ys.  31.  3- 

"  Ys.  33.  5. 

'  Ys.  46.  9- 

AHURA  MAZDA  21 

celestial  and  terrestrial  worlds,  the  creator  of  the  universe.^^ 
He  was  the  first  to  conceive  the  thought  to  fill  his  heavenly 
realm  with  light.^®  He  guards  the  earth  and  sky  from 
falling,  he  has  brought  forth  rivers  and  forests,  he  has  given 
swiftness  to  wind  and  clouds.  The  sun  and  the  stars  have  their 
course  fixed  by  him,  while  light  and  darkness,  sleep  and  wake- 
fulness, morn  and  noon  and  night,  come  from  him  alone,  and 
through  him  does  the  moon  wax  and  wane.^°  The  seasons 
follow  their  ordained  sequence  through  his  will.  He  is  the  father 
of  Vohu  Manah,  Good  Mind,'^  and  of  Asha,  Righteousness,^^ 
of  whom  he  is  the  creator.^^  He  is  one  in  accord  with  Asha, 
being  himself  righteousness.  Armaiti,  Devotion,  is  his  daughter,^* 
and  she  is  wholly  his,-^  and  he  is  the  Being  Supreme  that  has 
brought  forth  both  Armaiti  and  Khshathra,  the  Kingdom.-®  He 
has  brought  into  being  the  human  body  and  endowed  it  with  life 
and  conscience;"^  he  has  created  likewise  the  water  and  the 
trees.-*  He  has  lavished  his  bountiful  gifts  upon  humanity,  being 
himself  the  most  beneficent  of  all  beings.^^  Humanity  looks  to 
him  for  the  unceasing  benefits  that  come  to  them,  as  he  is  the 
dispenser  of  every  material  good  and  every  spiritual  blessing. 
The  entire  creation  sings  to  his  glory,  and  the  world  of  right- 
eousness, with  one  accord,  praises  him  as  its  father  and  lord, 
while  even  the  world  of  wickedness,  which  has  been  led  astray 
by  falsehood,  will  ultimately  come  over  to  him  and  seek  his 
grace.  As  the  creator  and  sustainer  of  the  universe,  he  rules 
according  to  his  own  will,^°  being  the  sovereign  lord  of  all 
existence.^^ 

Ahura  Mazda  is  the  lord  of  wisdom.  He  is  the  wise  one,^^ 
and  the  father  of  wisdom.  He  is  the  most  knowing  one,^^  and 
the  most  far-seeing  one.^*  He  knows  everything  before  it  comes 
to  pass ;  and  his  knowledge  is  unfailing  and  absolute,  so  that 
no  one  can  deceive  him.^^  He  observes  with  his  radiant  eyes 
everything  that  is  done  in  open  or  in  secret.^^    He  best  remembers 


^*Ys.  50.  II. 

''  Ys.  51.  7. 

"  Ys.  31.  7- 

"Ys.  28.  5;  33.  11;  48.  3. 

-Ys.  44.  3-S. 

'"  Ys.  43.  I. 

"Ys.  31.  8;  44.  4; 

45.  4. 

"  Ys.  28.  7. 

''  Ys.  44.  3 ;  47-  2. 

"Ys.  29.  6;  45.  3;  48.  2,  3 

"  Ys.  31.  7.  8. 

''Ys.  46.   19. 

"Ys.  45.  4. 

"Ys.    33.   13. 

"  Ys.  31.  9- 

»=Ys.  43-  6;  45-  4- 

'"  Ys.  44-  7. 

"Ys.  31.   13. 

^'Ys.  31.  II. 

22  AHURA  MAZDA 

the  misdeeds  of  the  wicked.^^  These  are  ignorant  of  what  is  to 
befall  them  in  the  future,  but  Ahura  Mazda  remembers  and 
knows  it.^^  Zarathushtra  asks  Ahura  Mazda  to  tell  him,  in  his 
infinite  wisdom,  of  what  is  to  be  and  what  is  not  to  be — for  the 
Lord  knows  everything  ^^ — so  that,  forewarned  of  future  events, 
he  may  prepare  himself  for  his  great  mission. 

Zarathushtra  seeks  communion  with  Ahura  Mazda,  and 
finds  it.  The  prophet's  heart  flows  out  in  deep  piety  to  his 
Heavenly  Father.  He  thirsts  for  the  moment  when  he  can  see 
Ahura  Mazda  in  his  mind's  eye  and  commune  with  him  to  get 
direct  information  about  his  work  for  the  spread  of  the  new 
faith.  Ahura  Mazda  is  fervently  prayed  to  approach  him  mani- 
festly in  person,*"  in  order  that  the  prophet  may  convince  the 
sceptics  of  the  truth  of  his  undertaking  and  that  the  pious- 
minded  may  listen  devoutly  to  his  teachings.  The  Lord  is  the 
fountain  of  holiness,*^  and  Zoroaster  yearns  to  bathe  in  the 
sanctifying  waters  of  this  fountain.  He  seeks  to  approach 
Ahura  Mazda  with  his  mind  thus  illumined  by  wisdom  and  his 
heart  ennobled  by  holiness.  Is  the  approach  to  the  Father 
in  heaven  possible?  Will  the  prophet's  passionate  desire 
to  reach  him  and  be  near  him  and  around  him  and  serve 
him  with  all  his  mind  and  all  his  heart  ever  be  fulfilled? 
Will  his  desire  to  see  the  Heavenly  Father  in  spirit  and 
converse  with  him  ever  be  satisfied?  If  he  is  to  be  the 
messenger  of  Ahura  Mazda  to  struggling  humanity,  Ahura 
Mazda  should  reveal  the  true  word  to  him  in  person.  On  that 
account  he  must  approach  him  and  acquaint  himself  through  the 
direct  questions  put  to  the  godhead  about  the  why  and  whence 
and  wherefore  of  life,  for  Ahura  Mazda  is  the  first  teacher 
of  the  devout.*^  The  prophet  yearns  to  be  acquainted  with  the 
law  and  will,  the  praise  and  prayer  of  Ahura  Mazda,  as  also  to 
know  the  beneficent  path  of  Vohu  Manah,  Good  Mind.*^  He 
has  not  to  wait  •  long  for  the  fulfilment  of  this  ardent  wish. 
When  his  spirit  is  ablaze  with  unquenchable  devotion,  when 
the  ardent  longing  for  Ahura  Mazda  swallows  up  every  other 
desire,  Vohu  Manah.  the  embodiment  of  the  good  mind,  the 
first  in  the  spiritual  hierarchy,  comes  to  him,**  and  the  prophet 

"  Ys.  29.  4-  "  Ys.  43.  3.  4,  5,  7,  9,  n,  I3,  I5;  48.  3- 

"  Ys.  32.  6,  7.  "  Ys.  SI.  3. 

"  Ys.  31.  5-  *'  Ys.  34.   12. 

"Ys.  33-   7-  "Ys.  43.  II,  13. 


AHURA  MAZDA  23 

is  assured  of  his  success,  for  it  is  through  Vohu  Manah  that 
he  can  realize  his  wish,  and  through  him  he  can  approach  the 
great  Master.*^  Vohu  Manah,  aided  by  Sraosha,  the  divine 
messenger,  reveals  the  sacred  word  of  Mazda  unto  him,  and 
the  prophet,  who  at  last  has  had  the  spiritual  vision  of  Ahura 
Mazda,  says  that  he  has  beheld  him  in  his  eye.*" 

Ahura  Mazda  is  the  refuge  of  Zarathushtra  in  his  trials. 
Girt  with  the  divine  wisdom,  Zarathushtra  undertakes  to  preach 
the  profound  truth  vouchsafed  him  by  Ahura  Mazda.  He  is 
prepared  to  makel  any  sacrifice  in  behalf  of  the  great  and 
momentous  cause;  he  is  ready  even  to  give  up  the  very  life 
of  his  body  in  the  service  of  Mazda.*^ 

Zarathushtra  craves  for  long  life  from  Ahura  Mazda,*^  so 
that  he  may  be  able  to  propagate  the  new  faith.  He  undertakes 
to  spread  the  worship  of  Ahura  Mazda  and  seeks  the  divine 
help  and  guidance  in  the  great  mission  that  he  has  undertaken. 
The  prophet's  path  is  beset  with  great  difficulties.  He  meets 
with  opposition  everywhere.  He  complains  that  the  heretics 
mislead  people,  and  he  implores  Ahura  Mazda  for  divine  help 
to  enable  him  to  succeed  in  routing  these  wicked  preachers  of 
the  Evil  Word.'*^  Neither  do  friends  countenance  him,  nor  kins- 
men heed  him,  nor  yet  do  the  rulers  help  him.  Persecuted  and 
ridiculed,  devoid  of  any  means,  the  sage  wanders  from  one 
place  to  another  quite  alone.  In  this  hour  of  sorrow  he  turns 
his  eyes  streaming  with  tears  to  his  Heavenly  Father  with  the 
touching  words :  '  To  what  land  shall  I  turn,  whither  shall  I 
go?'^°  He  beseeches  Ahura  Mazda  to  come  down  to  him,  in 
this  time  of  trouble,  with  his  divine  gifts,^^  and  grant  him  joy 
and  such  help  as  a  powerful  friend  would  bestow  upon  a  friend.^^ 
His  prayers  are  heard.  Though  his  earthly  friends  and  relatives 
had  forsaken  him,  the  prophet  was  not  alone.  His  Heavenly 
Father  had  been  with  him  all  this  while,  and  he  now  feels  himself 
no  longer  resourceless  and  helpless.  If  earthly  possessions  fail 
him,  he  is  rich  in  spiritual  riches. 

Ahura  Mazda  has  ordained  that  virtue  is  its  own  rev^^ard, 
and  vice  its  own  retribution.  This  is  the  great  commandment 
that  Aiazda  gives  to  mankind  through  his  messenger.     Every 

*'  Ys.  28.  2.  "  Ys.  43.  13.  "  Ys.  49-  I- 

"Ys.  31.  8;  45.  8.  "  Ys.  32.  9-  "  Ys.  43.   HI  46.  2. 

"  Ys.  33.  14.  "  Ys.  46.   I. 


24  AHURA  MAZDA 

individual  is  to  reap  the  consequences  of  his  own  thoughts,  words, 
and  deeds.  Zarathushtra  exhorts  men  and  women  to  make 
their  own  choice  between  good  and  evil,  for  every  one  has  to 
decide  his  own  faith,^^  and  the  prophet  emphasizes  again  the 
fact  of  individual  responsibility.  Man  has  to  exercise  his  free- 
dom of  the  will,  as  it  is  left  to  him  to  decide  whether  to  embrace 
goodness,  and  be  happy,  or  to  follow  the  path  of  wickedness 
which  will  inevitably  lead  him  to  a  life  of  woe. 

Mazda  has  ordained  laws  for  the  recompense  of  the  right- 
eous and  the  punishment  of  the  wicked  in  the  world  to  come,^* 
and  has  given  precepts  in  accordance  with  which  mankind 
should  live.^^  In  his  communion  with  the  Supreme  Being,  the 
prophet  desires  to  be  informed  regarding  these  vital  points,^® 
and  the  Lord  vouchsafes  this  knowledge  to  him  and  thus  to 
humanity.  Those  who  live  in  this  world  in  conformity  with 
the  divine  message,  reap  future  reward;  but  those  who  choose 
to  live  in  defiance  of  it,  bring  future  trouble  upon  themselves, 
for  both  weal  and  woe  come  from  him."  Unto  those  who  do 
his  will  he  gives  better  than  the  good,  but  he  metes  out  worse 
than  the  evil  to  those  who  act  against  it.^^  He  is  the  lord  to 
judge  the  deeds  of  life,^^  and  he  passes  his  verdict  on  them.'^" 
Strict  are  his  laws  and  stern  is  his  judgment.  Yet  he  is  not 
the  indiscriminate  dispenser  of  doom  to  erring  humanity.  His 
is  the  justice  tempered  with  mercy,  for  mercy  and  grace  abound 
in  his  divine  kingdom.^^ 

The  Holy  Spirit  of  Ahura  Mazda.  The  most  prominent  one 
of  the  titles  of  Ahura  Mazda,  and  one  which  comes  very  near 
being  personified  as  an  independent  spirit,  is  Spenta  Mainyu, 
the  *  Holy  Spirit.'  The  term  is  sometimes  used  in  its  superlative 
forms,  either  as  Spentotema  Mainyu  or  as  Spenishta  Mainyu, 
meaning  the  '  Most  Holy  Spirit.'  As  Mazda's  distinguishing 
epithet,  the  Holy  Spirit  generally  designates  the  Supreme 
Being.  But  in  some  cases  we  find  a  distinction  made  between 
Mazda  and  the  Holy  Spirit,  as  if  they  were  two  distinctly 
separate  beings.  As  Professor  Jackson  well  remarks,  the  close 
relation  between  Ahura  Mazda  and  his  Holy  Spirit  is  as  difficult 
to  define  as  that  between  the  Holy  Ghost  and  the  Father  in 


Ys.  30.  2.  "  Ys.  31-  14.  "  Ys.  31.  8. 

Ys.  45.  7.  "  Ys.  45.  9.  '"  Ys.  29.  4. 

Ys.  30.  II.  "Ys.  51.  6.  '^Ys.  51.  4. 


AHURA  MAZDA  25 

the  New  Testament.*'"  Ahura  Mazda  is  besought  to  grant  strength 
and  good  reward,  and  vigour  and  happiness  through  his  Most 
Holy  Spirit.^2  Zarathushtra  chooses  Mazda's  Most  Holy  Spirit.^* 
Mazda  is  the  creator  of  all  things  through  his  Holy  Spirit.^' 
The  good  works  of  the  Holy  Spirit  of  Mazda  are  besought  with 
prayer.^^  Zarathushtra  proclaims  what  Spentotema,  the  Most 
Holy  One,  has  said  unto  him,*''^  and  desires  that  Ahura  Mazda 
may  listen  to  him  through  the  Holy  Spirit."^  It  is  through  the 
Holy  Spirit  that  Ahura  Mazda  has  promised  to  the  righteous  all 
that  is  best ;  ^^  and  it  is  also  owing  to  him  that  the  wicked,  and 
not  the  righteous,  suffer.^"  Ahura  Mazda,  through  his  Holy 
Spirit,  judges  between  the  litigants  at  the  final  dispensation.''^ 
Zarathushtra  fulfils  the  best  work  of  the  Most  Holy  Spirit 
through  the  words  of  Good  Mind  and  the  deeds  of  Devotion.''^ 
At  the  time  of  the  Renovation  of  the  universe,  Mazda  will  come 
with  his  Holy  Spirit,^^  and  through  him  give  perfection  and 
immortality  to  man.''* 

When  Zarathushtra  expounds  his  famous  doctrine  of  the 
duality  of  the  primeval  spirits,  the  name  of  Ahura  Mazda,  the 
great  God  of  Goodness,  is  replaced  by  his  appellative,  Spenta 
Mainyu,  '  Holy  Spirit,'  who  is  placed  in  direct  antagonism  to 
Angra  Mainyu,  '  Evil  Spirit.'  These  two  spirits  are  called 
twins  and  represent  the  good  and  evil  aspects  of  existence  re- 
spectively." Life  is  the  boon  of  the  Holy  Spirit,''*'  who  gives  his 
adversary,  the  Evil  Spirit,  to  understand  that  he  is  opposed 
to  him  in  his  thoughts,  precepts,  understanding,  faith,  words, 
deeds,  self,  soul,  and  all."  The  Most  Holy  Spirit,  who  lives  in 
yonder  heaven,  chose  righteousness,  but  the  Evil  One  embraced 
wickedness.''^ 

'^  Cf.  his  article  '  Ormazd,  or  the  Ancient  Persian  Idea  of  God,'  in 
The  Monist,  Chicago,  January,  1899. 

•' Ys.  33-  12;  43-  2;  51-  7-  „  ^, 

•"'  Ys.  43.  16.                      '"  Ys.  47.  5.  Ys.  47-  I. 

"'  Ys.  44-  7-                          '"  Ys.  47.  4.  "  Ys.  30.  3. 

<"Ys.  28.  I.                        "Ys.  47.  6.  "Ys.  30.  4. 

"  Ys.  45.  5.                        "  Ys.  47.  2.  "  Ys.  45.  2. 

"  Ys.  45.  6.                       ''•  Ys.  43-  6.  ■"  Ys.  30.  5- 


CHAPTER  V 
MAZDA'S  MINISTERING  ANGELS 

Amesha  Spentas  in  the  making.  A  class  of  higher  celestial 
beings  working  with  Ahura  Mazda  as  his  satellites,  and  com- 
parable with  the  idea  conveyed  by  such  terms  as  archangels 
or  ministering  angels,  fills  a  prominent  place  in  the  Iranian  faith. 
Their  names  connote  the  ordinary  meaning  of  the  terms  involved 
or  else  are  used  as  abstractions  of  highly  ethical  conceptions,  per- 
sonified into  concrete  beings.  They  do  not  receive  their  designa- 
tions from  any  natural  phenomena,  but  are  purely  the  per- 
sonifications of  abstract  virtues.  The  term  Amesha  Spenta, 
literally  meaning  '  Immortal  Holy  One,'  which  is  applied  in  the 
later  texts  as  a  class-designation  for  this  group  of  Mazda's 
associates,  does  not  itself  occur  in  the  Gathas,  though  these 
divine  abstractions  are  constantly  mentioned  individually  and 
collectively  in  the  Gathic  hymns  in  direct  association  with 
Mazda.  We  find  in  the  Gathas,  however,  two  instances  of 
the  use  of  the  appellative  terms  Mazdao(scha)  Ahuraongho, 
'  Ahura  Mazda  and  his  associates,'  ^  as  alluding  to  the  supreme 
God  and  his  ministering  angels.  The  Amesha  Spentas  are  six 
in  number,  and  -with  Ahura  Mazda  at  their  head  they  form  a 
heptad.  The  Gathas  in  referring  to  this  class  of  archangels  do 
not  happen  to  mention  the  number  seven,  but  the  subsequent 
literature  generally  speaks  of  them  definitely  as  seven,  a  number 
to  which  mystical  potency  is  attributed. 

Their  names,  throughout  all  the  Avestan  literature,  are  Vohu 
Manah,  '  Good  Mind,'  Asha,  '  Righteousness,'  Khshathra  Vairya, 
'  Wished- for  Kingdom,'  Armaiti,  '  Devotion,'  Haurvatat,  '  Per- 
fection,' and  Ameretat,  '  Immortality.'  Each  of  them  is  to  be 
met  with  in  the  Gathas  both  separately  as  well  as  in  company 
with  one  or  others  of  the  group,  and  has  various  functions  to 
perform.    They  all,  moreover,  have  work  of  a  twofold  character 

'  Ys.  30.  9;  31.  4. 

26 


MAZDA'S  MINISTERING  ANGELS  27 

to  fulfil,  for  each  stands  on  the  spiritual  side  as  an  embodiment 
of  some  specific  virtue  and  on  the  physical  side  presides  over 
some  material  object  as  its  guardian  spirit.  To  each  of  them, 
accordingly,  beside  the  spiritual  element  some  material  creation  is 
consecrated.  While  the  physical  aspect  is  more  pronounced  in 
the  later  texts,  the  Gathas  deal  mainly  with  the  abstract  side, 
though  occasionally  stray  passages  are  met  with  which  fore- 
shadow the  material  side.  We  shall  now  deal  with  these  higher 
beings  individually. 

VoHU  Manah 

The  premier  spirit  in  the  divine  household.  Vohu  Manah, 
'  Good  Alind,'  or  Vahishta  Manah,  '  Best  Mind,'  as  he  is  fre- 
quently spoken  of  in  the  Gathas,  is  the  first  in  the  creation 
of  the  Good  Spirit.  The  prophet  conceives  him  in  his  mind 
as  the  son  of  Ahura  Mazda. ^  He  occupies  the  first  place  in 
the  celestial  hierarchy,  and  wields  great  power.  It  is  through 
him  that  Zarathushtra  with  hands  uplifted  in  pious  supplication 
longs  to  approach  Ahura  Mazda. ^  The  Lord  God  teaches 
through  righteousness  the  noble  path  of  Vohu  Manah,  which  is 
the  religion  of  the  saviours.*  The  wise  firmly  resolve  to  em- 
brace the  deeds  of  Good  Mind.^  Righteousness  and  Devotion 
further  the  dominion  of  Vohu  Manah."  The  righteous  will  dwell 
in  the  abode  of  Good  Mind  in  the  next  world. ^ 

Genius  of  high  thinking  and  wisdom.  The  illumination  of 
the  human  mind  comes  through  Vohu  Manah,  and  Zarathushtra 
implores  Mazda  to  be  his  revealer.^  He  longs  for  the  moment 
when,  being  enlightened  and  inspired,  he  may  behold  Vohu 
Manah.^  The  sage  has  not  to  wait  for  the  realization  of  his 
ardent  desire,  for  Vohu  Manah  approaches  him  with  divine 
knowledge/**  and  asks  of  him  his  heart's  longing."  As  the  pre- 
siding spirit  over  good  thoughts  and  wisdom,  Vohu  Manah  works 
in  a  twofold  way  in  the  inner  life  of  man.  Good  thoughts 
proceed  from  him,  and  good  words  and  good  deeds  are  but  the 
products  of  these.  Man  experiences  an  incessant  war  waged 
in  his  inner  world  between  the  good  thoughts  of  Vohu  Manah 

=  Ys.  31.  8;  45-  4-  '  Ys.  34.  11.  »  Ys.  28.  5. 

'Ys.  28.  2.  'Ys.  30.  10.  "Ys.  43.  II. 

*Ys.  34.  12,  13.  «Ys.  31.  17.  ^'Ys.  43.  7,  9,   13,  IS. 

'Ys.  34.   10. 


28  MAZDA'S  MINISTERING  ANGELS 

and  the  evil  thoughts  of  Aka  Manah.  The  law  of  polarity, 
which  works  in  the  world  without,  works  also  in  the  world 
within.  The  soul  is  not  to  remain  a  passive  spectator  between 
these  opposite  sides  of  mental  activity;  it  has  to  embrace  the 
first  and  to  learn  to  control  and  rout  the  other.  It  has  to  guard 
itself  from  falling  an  easy  prey  to  the  mischievous  machinations 
of  the  source  of  evil  thoughts.  Unless  man  by  strict  discipline 
learns  to  preserve  the  equilibrium  between  these  contending 
forces,  he  cannot  attain  to  that  mental  calm  and  peace  which 
is  essential  for  the  higher  life  of  the  spirit. 

Along  with  nobility  of  mind  Vohu  Manah  imparts  enlighten- 
ment also.  He  helps  man  to  dispel  the  darkness  of  ignorance 
and  its  concomitant  vices.  Knowledge  or  wisdom,  the  coveted 
boon  that  man  seeks  to  obtain,  is  a  means  for  his  righteous 
actions.  The  truly  righteous  person  is  not  he  who  knows  the 
divine  precepts,  but  he  who  lives  them.  Knowledge  is  good, 
but  action  based  on  that  knowledge  is  better.  The  life  of  greater 
felicity  is  the  reward  of  the  doer,  rather  than  the  thinker,  in 
the  world  to  come. 

Zarathushtra  exhorts  his  followers  to  seek  Vohu  Manah's 
grace.  Through  his  union  with  the  spirit  of  Good  ]\Iind,  Zara- 
thushtra says  that  he  will  teach  mankind  to  follow  the  path  of 
righteousness  as  long  as  he  has  strength  left  in  him.^^  The 
prophet  is  beloved  of  Vohu  Alanah,  who  declares  him  to  be  the 
only  man  who  has  devoutly  heard  the  divine  precepts."  Zara- 
thushtra celebrates  Vohu  Manah  with  song,  and  prays  that  this 
personified  spirit  of  goodness  may  come  unto  him  for  help.^^ 
Just  as  the  noxious  creatures  flee  from  man,  so  does  righteous- 
ness flee  from  the  man  who  in  spite  of  Vohu  Manah's  warnings 
indulges  in  wickedness ;  ^^  and  that  man  who  does  not  embrace 
righteousness  finds  himself  deserted  by  Vohu  Alanah.^®  Those 
that  have  revolted  from  Vohu  ]\Ianah  are  called  the  beloved 
of  the  demons. ^^  Zoroaster  complains  of  those  who  do  not 
seek  Vohu  ]Manah's  counsel. ^^  They  incite  the  righteous  ones 
to  deviate  from  the  path  of  Vohu  Manah,  being  unaware  of  the 
great  harm  that  they  thus  bring  upon  themselves.^^  These  sin- 
ners will  eventually  see  their  error  at  the  time  when  retribution 


^*  Ys.  28.  4. 

^=Ys.  34.9. 

^'Ys.  44.  13. 

"  Ys.  29.  8. 

^'  Ys.  34.  8. 

"  Ys.  32.  II 

"  Ys.  28.  3. 

"  Ys.  32.  4- 

MAZDA'S  MINISTERING  ANGELS  29 

will  reach  them,  and  Vohu  Manah  shall  establish  the  Divine  King- 
dom at  the  command  of  Mazda.-*' 

Vohu  Manah's  boons.  Asha  is  besought  to  grant  Vohu 
Manah's  blessings.-^  Mazda  has  promised  that  perfection  and 
immortality  will  come  through  Good  Mind.--  It  is  he  that 
furthers  the  possessions  of  those  who  please  the  prophet  of 
Mazda.^^  In  his  difficulties  Zoroaster  asks  for  Vohu  Manah's 
riches,^*  and  for  chieftainship  through  him.^^  Those  who  are  de- 
voted to  Ahura  receive  power  and  supremacy  through  the  medium 
of  Vohu  Manah.^®  It  is  easy,  therefore,  for  us  to  understand  why 
Zoroaster  asks  him  to  grant  power  unto  his  disciples, ^^  and  why 
he  demands  from  Asha  the  excellence  of  Vohu  Manah,^^  be- 
seeching Ahura  Mazda  to  grant  Vohu  Manah's  reward  especially 
to  the  pious  Frashaoshtra  and  himself.^^  This  reward  is  an 
incomparable  blessing.^''  The  Supreme  Being  is  further  asked 
to  grant  the  wishes  of  those  who  are  worthy  of  Vohu  Manah's 
reward  owing  to  their  righteousness.^^  Mazda  bestows  the  bless- 
ings of  Good  Mind  upon  man.^^  Whoso  befriends  Mazda  re- 
ceives Vohu  Manah's  steadfastness  from  him.^^  Armaiti,  or 
devotion  personified,  is  implored  by  the  supplicant  to  grant 
the  life  with  Vohu  Manah,  which  is  the  equivalent  of  divine 
felicity  forever.^* 

Vohu  Manah  as  the  genius  of  cattle.  In  the  later  develop- 
ment of  the  Zoroastrian  theology  Vohu  Manah's  function  as 
the  patron  divinity  of  cattle  comes  out  prominently.  The  Gathas 
do  not  explicitly  speak  of  Vohu  Manah's  work  in  the  animal 
kingdom,  though  instances  could  be  cited  which  lead  us  to  be- 
lieve that  the  archangel  was  even  then  thought  to  have  the 
guardianship  of  the  cattle  as  his  special  province.  When  Geush 
Urvan,  the  genius  representing  animal  life,  seeks  a  redress  of  the 
wrongs  which  the  kine  have  to  suffer  upon  earth,  Vohu  Manah 
declares  Zarathushtra  as  the  one  man  who  by  his  teachings  of 
industrial  life  to  men  will  inaugurate  an  era  of  prosperity  for 
animal  life  as  well  as  for  man.^^  The  diligent  husbandman  who 
grows  fodder  for  cattle  is  the  promoter  of  Vohu  Manah.^^    Still 


Ys.  30.  8.  '"  Ys.  33.  12;  44.  6.  ''  Ys.  43.  2. 

Ys.  28.  7.  '' Ys.  29.   10.  "Ys.  31.  21. 

Ys.  45.  10.  ''  Ys.  28.  7.  "  Ys.  43.  I. 

Ys.  46.  13.  "  Ys.  28.  8.  ''  Ys.  29.  7.  8. 

"  Ys.  46.  2.  '"  Ys.  33.  13-  "  Ys.  31.  10. 

"Ys.  49.3.  "Ys.  28.   10. 


21 
22 

23 


30  MAZDA'S  MINISTERING  ANGELS 

another  Gathic  passage  incidentally  mentions  cattle  in  connection 
with  Vohu  Manah." 
» 

ASHA 

The  impersonation  of  righteousness.  The  basic  concept  of 
this  spiritual  being  goes  far  back  to  the  Indo-Iranian  period. 
The  name  asha,  as  it  is  generally  now  pronounced,  must  certainly 
have  been  pronounced  in  ancient  times  as  arta  or  areta,  the  latter 
variant  being  also  found,  and  it  is  equivalent  to  the  Vedic  rta. 
The  Gathas,  as  also  the  Later  Avestan  works  generally,  write  the 
term  as  asha,  whereas  the  Old  Persian  Inscriptions  use  the  term 
arta  as  an  element  of  proper  names.  During  the  Pahlavi  period 
both  the  asha  and  the  arta  forms  are  variously  used. 

The  term  asha  ordinarily  connotes  the  meaning  righteousness. 
When  personified,  the  word  stands  as  the  proper  name  of  the 
genius  of  righteousness.  The  epithet  vahishta,  '  best,'  is  occa- 
sionally attached  to  him.  The  place  accorded  him  in  the  Gathas 
is  the  third  after  Ahura  Mazda. 

Zarathushtra  is  singled  out  to  communicate  the  Law  of 
Righteousness  to  humanity.  This  divine  law  is  more  immutable 
than  the  earth  below  and  the  heavens  above.  Ahura  Mazda  has 
established  it.  It  has  flourished  in  the  world  of  spirits  from  all 
eternity,  and  the  Lord  now  seeks  to  implant  it  in  the  hearts  of 
men.  For  that  reason  Zoroaster  is  chosen  as  the  best  and  the 
worthiest  person  to  be  the  law-giver  to  mankind.  No  one  else 
besides  him  is  considered  worthy  of  this  mighty  work.  Vohu 
Manah  declares  that  Zarathushtra  alone  has  heard  the  divine 
commandments  and  has  undertaken  to  make  them  known  to  man- 
kind.^^  In  pious  submission  to  the  divine  command,  Zoroaster 
undertakes  to  establish  the  Law  of  Righteousness  on  earth. 

The  prophet  guides  mankind  to  Asha's  righteousness. 
Ahura  Mazda  is  the  father  of  Asha.^®  He  has  created  this 
embodiment  of  righteousness  through  his  divine  wisdom,*"  and 
is  of  one  will  with  him.*^  Mazda  is  the  ever  helping  friend  of 
those  who  befriend  Asha.  Zoroaster  implores  him  to  grant 
strength  to  his  disciples,*^  and  through  Asha  the  blessings  of 
Vohu  Manah  for  both  worlds.*^    The  prophet  longs  for  a  vision 

"Ys.  47.  3.  ""Ys.  31.  8.  "Ys.  29.  10. 

='  Ys.  29.  8.  "  Ys.  28.  8;  29.  7.  *'  Ys.  28.  2,  7;  43-  2. 

"Ys.  47.  2. 


MAZDA'S  MINISTERING  ANGELS  31 

of  Asha.**  Life  led  in  accordance  with  Asha  makes  one  re- 
semble Mazda.*^  Asha  co-operates  with  the  godhead  at  the  final 
dispensation.*^  Zoroaster  best  exemplifies  Asha's  virtues  in  his 
noble  life.  Undaunted  by  hardships  and  trials  he  proclaims  the 
law  of  righteousness  to  the  world.  When  this  great  prophetic 
work  is  beset  with  untold  difficulties;  when  the  prophet  of 
Ahura  faces  opposition  on  all  sides;  when  friends  desert  his 
company,  and  kinsmen  abandon  his  cause;  when  the  rulers  of 
the  land  look  upon  him  with  suspicions,  and  the  wicked  seek  to 
compass  his  ruin;  when,  friendless  and  forsaken,  hissed  and 
hooted,  ridiculed  and  persecuted,  he  roams  about  the  villages 
and  towns  of  Iran — then  he  turns  his  eager  eyes  to  Mazda  and 
Asha  in  search  for  inward  peace,  and  obtains  it.*^  Reduced  to 
the  verge  of  the  direst  poverty,  Zarathushtra  does  not  seek 
earthly  riches,  but  the  imperishable  wealth  of  the  spirit,  that  is, 
righteousness. 

Zoroaster  fervently  hopes  for  the  period  when  every  individ- 
ual in  his  or  her  own  capacity  will  embrace  and  act  righteous- 
ness and  will  thus  make  the  entire  world  of  humanity  gravitate 
towards  Asha.  In  this  consists  the  final  victory  of  good  over 
evil,  and  the  divine  kingdom  of  Ahura  Mazda  will  come  when 
righteousness  wholly  pervades  the  universe.  All,  therefore,  have 
to  contribute  to  this  mighty  work.  The  righteous  ones  living 
in  different  ages  and  at  different  places  form  the  members  of 
one  holy  group,  inasmuch  as  they  are  all  actuated  by  one  and 
the  same  motive  and  work  for  the  common  cause.  Though 
differentiated  by  time  and  place,  as  also  by  their  respective 
tenements  of  clay,  they  are  one  in  spirit,  and  work  for  the 
inauguration  of  the  Kingdom  of  Righteousness. 

Righteousness  is  the  pivot  around  which  the  ethics  of 
Zarathushtra  revolve.  Asha  is  the  highest  word  in  the  Zoro- 
astrian  terminology,  and  its  derivative  ashavan  forms  the  epithet 
of  the  man  who  is  most  saintly  and  possesses  the  noblest  char- 
acter. The  term  itself  is  applied  to  Ahura  Mazda,  to  Zara- 
thushtra, and  to  all  who  are  religious.  Righteousness  is  the  will 
of  Ahura  Mazda ;  it  is  the  rule  of  man's  duty,  and  to  be  right- 
eous is  synonymous  with  being  religious.  The  law  of  right- 
eousness is  the  norm  to  which  the  faithful  has  to  conform  his  life 

'*  Ys.  28.  5 ;  43.  10.  "  Ys.  47.  6.  "'  Ys.  28.  6. 

"Ys.  31.  16. 


32  MAZDA'S  MINISTERING  ANGELS 

in  this  world.  Good  thoughts,  good  words,  and  good  deeds — 
humata,  hukhta,  hvarshta — form  the  ethical  foundation  upon 
which  righteousness  rests  and  the  basis  upon  which  the 
entire  structure  of  the  system  of  the  Mazdayasnian  phi- 
losophy is  reared.  This  noble  truth,  at  once  so  pithy 
and  simple,  is  accessible  to  all.  It  does  not  appeal  to  the 
intellectual  few  and  leave  aside  the  ignorant  many;  nor  does  it 
remain  the  prerogative  of  a  few  thinkers  and  philosophers ;  but 
it  can  reach  all  and  become  the  cherished  possession  of  the 
prince  and  peasant  alike.  Every  Zoroastrian  child  imbibes 
the  triad  of  good  thoughts,  words,  and  deeds  at  its  mother's 
breast. 

The  discipline  of  the  individual  in  righteousness.  The 
prophet  inculcates  righteousness  in  his  teachings,  and  strictly 
enjoins  his  followers  to  combat  wickedness.  By  his  birth- 
right man  belongs  to  the  world  of  righteousness  and  is  sent 
into  this  world  for  its  furtherance  and  for  the  destruction  of 
the  world  of  wickedness.  Before  the  individual  steps  out  to  do 
this  in  the  outer  world,  he  has  first  to  establish  order  in  his  inner 
world.  Concord  and  not  discord,  order  and  not  disorder,  right- 
eousness and  not  wickedness,  should  be  his  constant  inward  ex- 
perience. With  strict  discipline  he  has  to  work  for  the  spiritual 
development  of  his  self.  He  is  taught  to  subjugate  his  passions, 
eradicate  evil  thoughts  from  his  mind,  and  conquer  the  animal 
in  him  by  an  incessant  warfare  with  the  forces  of  evil.  The  path 
of  righteousness  leads  to  the  abode  of  Mazda,*^  in  which  Asha 
dwells  with  other  celestial  beings  of  the  heaven.*^  But  the  path 
is  not  without  its  difficulties  and  trials;  firm  resolution,  strong 
will,  and  sustained  effort  are  required  before  one  can  success- 
fully tread  it  and  reach  the  final  goal.  It  needs  no  effort  to  be 
wicked  and  to  be  a  passive  victim  of  the  flesh,  but  it  does  take  a 
hero  to  be  righteous  and  live  for  the  spirit.  There  are  tempt- 
ing pitfalls  and  alluring  snares  that  beguile  the  devotee  and  lead 
him  astray  to  the  path  of  wickedness.  The  quest  is  fraught  with 
great  difficulties.  But  then  the  prize  it  brings  is  also  matchless. 
The  goal  is  not  easy  of  reach.  Many  more  are  the  chances  of 
misses  than  those  of  hits,  and  the  aspirant  has  to  try  again  and 
again  before  he  can  successfully  strike  the  mark.  Our  attempt 
may  prove  fruitless  for  the  time  being,  but  there  is  merit  in 

"  Ys.  33.  s.  "  Ys.  30.  10. 


MAZDA'S  MINISTERING  ANGELS  33 

having  aimed  at  realizing  the  ideal.     If  we  win,  it  is  good.     If 
we  lose,  it  is  also  good. 

Man  has  to  keep  himself  pure  and  clean  bodily,  mentally,  and 
spiritually.  Purity  of  body  and  mind  is  the  best  thing  for  man 
in  life.^"  It  strengthens  righteousness  and  sanctity.  The  blend- 
ing of  the  virtues  of  Vohu  Manah  and  Armaiti  in  the  life  of 
man  makes  him  righteous.  The  fusion  of  the  noble  qualities  • 
both  of  the  head  and  the  heart  makes  the  individual  righteous. 
Vohu  Manah  purifies  the  mind,  Armaiti  sanctifies  the  heart. 
Vohu  Manah's  knowledge  enlightens  the  mind,  Armaiti's  devo- 
tion ennobles  it.  Without  knowledge  man  is  poor  indeed,  but 
without  devotion  he  courts  death  in  spirit.  Knowledge  teaches 
the  spirit,  the  philosophy  of  life,  devotion  lends  to  the  spirit 
the  zest  to  act  it,  and  the  true  religion  begins  with  this  acting. 
The  philosopher  may  think  of  Ahura  Mazda,  the  metaphysician 
may  speculate  about  his  origin,  but  the  devout  actually  imitates 
him  in  action.  Knowledge  gives  a  right  view  of  life,  teaches 
man  about  his  relations  to  his  Heavenly  Father  and  the  universe, 
and  creates  ideals  for  him ;  but  devotion  strives  to  realize  these. 
Knowledge  is  good,  wisdom  is  better;  but  wisdom  tinged  with 
devotion  is  best.  The  wise  knows  Mazda,  the  devout  owns 
Mazda ;  and  the  blending  of  the  virtues  of  both  makes  man  the 
consummate  one,  the  saint,  the  ashavan,  or  righteous  one. 

To  further  righteousness  is  only  half  the  duty;  to  combat 
wickedness  is  the  other  half.  There  is  yet  another  and  nobler 
side  of  virtue  in  which  the  active  rather  than  the  passive  virtues 
predominate  and  guide  the  actions  of  life.  In  this  higher  sphere 
of  life  man  is  now  taught  to  go  out  from  within  himself  and  do 
active  work  for  others.  The  truly  righteous  person  does  not  live 
for  himself  alone,  but  holds  out  his  own  life  for  the  ransom  of 
others.  Man  may  not  rest  with  working  for  the  salvation  of  his 
individual  soul;  he  has  equally  to  strive  for  the  saving  of  the 
collective  soul,  the  soul  of  all  humanity.  Every  year  that  he 
lives  in  this  world  he  has  to  render  some  distinct  social  service 
and  further  the  sum  total  of  human  joy  and  happiness ;  every  day 
that  he  enjoys  the  infinite  blessings  of  Ahura  Mazda  he  has  to 
give  his  mite  in  the  furtherance  of  the  cause  of  goodness.  Human 
society  is  a  great  family,  and  no  single  member  can  live  by  him- 
self.    No  act  of  the  individual  can  be  so  personal  that  it  does 

»"  Ys.  48.  5- 


34  MAZDA'S  MINISTERING  ANGELS 

not  affect  other  members  of  the  group  or  influence  them  in  some 
way  or  other.  Every  one  has  to  work  for  all.  The  individual 
is  an  important  incident  in  society,  a  dutiful  member  of  the  world 
of  humanity  if  he  works  for  it;  but  an  undesirable  burden  and 
a   superfluous   impediment   to   society  if   he   selfishly  lives   only 

for   himself. 

When  one  works  for  the  good  of  others  and  lays  his  services 
at  the  door  of  society,  one  becomes  richer  in  spirit.  The  spirit 
gains  when  she  goes  out  from  within  and  is  prepared  to  lose 
herself  for  the  common  good,  but  loses  when  she  is  confined  to 
the  narrow  limits  of  herself.  There  is  nothing  nobler  for  her 
than  the  virtue  of  self-sacrifice.  The  righteous  sages  have  at- 
tained to  greatness  because  they  were  meek  enough  in  spirit 
and  humble  enough  in  heart  to  be  humanity's  willing  servants. 
These  spread  goodness  around  them  and  become  the  means  of 
happiness  to  others.  And  real  happiness  in  turn  comes  to  those 
who  thus  make  others  happy.^^ 

Various,  as  we  know,  are  the  motives  which  serve  men  as 
incentives  in  their  work.  Some  work  for  the  applause  of  their 
fellow-beings,  some  for  posthumous  name  and  fame,  while  still 
others  do  some  good  work  in  the  hope  of  some  reward  in  this 
or  the  next  world.  If  a  man  abstains  from  evil  it  may  be  owing 
to  the  dread  of  public  censure  or  to  the  fear  of  incurring  the 
divine  vengeance  and  future  retribution ;  but  the  truly  righteous 
one  practises  righteousness  for  its  own  sake.  As  the  patriot 
who  is  guided  by  the  noblest  of  human  sentiments  lives  and 
dies  for  his  country,  so  the  ashavan  acts  in  promoting  the  divine 
Kingdom  of  Righteousness. 

Just  as  the  individual's  duty  ends  not  in  practising  passive 
virtues  which  tend  to  make  him  good,  but  in  making  others  good, 
so  also  he  must  not  rest  when  he  has  eradicated  his  evil  thoughts, 
bridled  his  passions,  and  overcome  the  evil  that  lurks  in  his 
inward  nature,  but  he  has  further  to  reclaim  others  who  have 
embraced  wickedness.  It  is  not  only  passive  resistance  that  he 
has  to  offer  to  evil,  but  adopting  an  aggressive  attitude  towards 
evil  of  all  kinds,  he  has  to  combat  and  rout  it.  It  is  not  enough 
that  he  should  himself  eschew  evil;  he  must  combat  evil  in 
others.  He  cannot  remain  a  passive  spectator  while  his  neighbour 
is  suffering.    He  is  not  to  be  a  passive  onlooker  of,  or  to  connive 

"Ys.  43-  I. 


MAZDA'S  MINISTERING  ANGELS  35 

at  some  wrong  on  the  ground  that  he  is  not  the  originator  of  it. 
The  fact  that  something  evil  and  imperfect  exists  around  him, 
no  matter  by  whom  caused,  is  a  sufficient  reason  why  he  should 
rush  into  the  fray  and  do  his  share  to  mitigate  and  remove  it. 
Nay,  he  has  even  to  hunt  out  the  hydra  of  wrong  and  strike  at  its 
many  heads,  so  that  the  world  of  righteousness  may  not  suffer. 

The  prophet  of  Iran  warns  man  that  happiness  is  not  the 
criterion  of  the  value  of  human  life,  pleasure  is  not  the  stand- 
ard;  but  duty  in  its  twofold  aspect,  that  is,  of  working  for 
righteousness  and  fighting  against  wickedness,  is  the  guiding 
principle  of  life.  Incessant  work  for  the  Kingdom  of  Righteous- 
ness deepens  man's  life ;  uncompromising  war  against  the  King- 
dom of  Wickedness  strengthens  it.  This  twofold  activity  makes 
life  complete.  To  further  righteousness  is,  moreover,  only  half 
the  duty;  to  combat  wickedness  is  the  other  half.  Both  are  in- 
dispensable to  realize  the  Zoroastrian  ideal  of  righteousness. 

On  the  material  side  fire  is  consecrated  to  Asha.  Zoro- 
astrianism  centres  in  the  fire  as  its  most  sacred  emblem.  We 
shall  deal  more  fully  with  this  characteristic  feature  of  Zara- 
thushtra's  religion  below  under  the  separate  heading  of  Atar,  the 
genius  of  fire.  In  this  place  we  shall  confine  ourselves  simply  to 
referring  to  Asha's  relation  to  fire  from  the  moral  point  of 
view.  Fire  or  light  is  taken  as  the  most  sacred  emblem  of 
purity  and  serves  as  a  visible  symbol  of  Asha's  righteousness, 
and  the  presence  of  fire  is,  therefore,  desired  through  Asha.^- 
Zarathushtra  meditates  upon  righteousness  at  the  moment  of 
giving  an  offering  of  homage  unto  the  fire  of  Ahura  Mazda.^^ 
Here  the  prophet's  action  reminds  the  faithful  Zoroastrian,  who 
wends  his  way  towards  the  fire-temple,  that  the  real  motive  of 
carrying  an  offering  to  Asha's  earthly  symbol  is  that  the  act 
should  make  him  think  of  Asha's  spiritual  virtue.  Homage  to 
the  concrete  element  should  suggest  to  him  the  abstract  idea  of 
righteousness.  If  the  offering  does  not  produce  this  psycho- 
logical effect  it  is  of  no  avail.  If  the  devout  believer  in  Mazda, 
while  offering  the  material  object  unto  fire,  is  not  affected  in 
spirit,  and  if  the  act  of  burning  fragrant  incense  on  the  fire 
does  not  produce  virtuous  and  noble  thoughts  in  his  mind;  or 
again,  if  while  sacrificing  some  earthly  goods  at  the  altar  of 
the  Lord,  he  is  not  inspired  to  sacrifice  his  heart,  if  he  does  not 

"  Ys.  34.  4-  "  Ys.  43-  9- 


36  MAZDA'S  MINISTERING  ANGELS 

return  from  the  sacred  precincts  meek  in  spirit,  contrite  of  heart, 
and  if  the  shrill  ring  of  the  bell  in  the  holy  of  holies  tinkles 
in  vain,  failing  to  strike  a  chord  of  pious  emotion,  then  his 
offerings  of  the  handfuls  of  sandalwood  and  cart-loads  of  fuel 
are  of  no  consequence. 

Khshathra 

The  Divine  Kingdom  of  Ahura  Mazda.  Khshathra,  '  the 
Kingdom,' or  Vohu  Khshathra,  'the  Good  Kingdom/ or  Khshathra 
Ishtoish,  *  the  Kingdom  of  Desire,'  or  Khshathra  Vairya,  '  the 
Wished- for  Kingdom,'  are  terms  standing  for  the  divine  majesty, 
the  sovereign  power  of  Ahura  Mazda.  Unlike  his  predecessors 
who  take  an  active  part  in  the  struggle  between  the  righteous 
and  the  wicked  creations,  Khshathra  represents  a  state  or  a 
condition  brought  about  in  the  world  by  the  work  of  man. 
In  him  lies  the  realization  of  the  object  of  creation.  The 
progress  and  evolution  of  the  universe  have  for  their  main  ideal 
the  establishment  of  the  Divine  Kingdom  on  earth.  This  is  the 
goal  which  will  be  reached  when  good  shall  vanquish  evil,  the 
law  of  righteousness  be  established,  and  the  powers  of  wicked- 
ness be  routed  forever.  True  it  is  that  Ahura  Mazda  is  the 
sovereign  of  the  universe  from  before  the  beginning  of  time,  but 
his  rule  is  hampered  by  Angra  Mainyu.  Humanity  co-operates 
with  the  godhead  to  put  down  the  wicked  spirit,  to  remove  the 
imperfection,  and  to  inaugurate  the  kingdom  in  which  the  will 
of  the  Lord  shall  reign  supreme  and  the  dissenting  voice  of  the 
opponent  spirit  shall  be  heard  no  more.  By  teaching  mankind 
the  virtue  of  pious  obedience  to  the  religion  of  Mazda,  Zara- 
thushtra  lays  the  foundation  of  the  Divine  Kingdom.^*  The  king- 
dom of  Khshathra  Vairya  is  expressly  that  of  Ahura  Mazda,  but 
Vohu  Manah  is  to  be  the  great  factor  in  establishing  and  advanc- 
ing it.^^  Truly,  when  Vohu  Manah  has  a  sway  over  the  minds 
of  men  and  women,  the  lives  they  lead  will  be  in  accordance 
with  the  will  of  Mazda.  Asha  helps  him  who  does  what  is  right 
to  attain  to  Khshathra  Vairya's  Good  Kingdom.^^ 

The  pious  pray  for  their  share  of  enjoyment  in  the  Good 
Kingdom  of  Mazda.  Participation  in  the  celestial  possession 
is  the  ardent  wish  of  the  devout,"  and  Zarathushtra  praises  it 

"  Ys.  33-  14-  "  Ys.  51.  i- 

"Ys.  30.  8;  31.  6.  "  Ys.  51.  2. 


MAZDA'S  MINISTERING  ANGELS  37, 

and  sings  to  the  glory  of  Ahura  Mazda  in  asking  for  himself 
the  riches  and  the  incomparable  things  of  the  Divine  Kingdom.^^ 
While  on  the  spiritual  side  KJishathra  Vairya  stands  for  the 
celestial  riches  of  the  Divine  Kingdom  of  Ahura  Mazda,  which 
is  to  come,  this  archangel  typifies  on  the  material  side  the  earthly 
riches  embodied  in  the  mineral  v^orld.  Khshathra  Vairya,  there- 
fore, is  entrusted  v^ith  the  guardianship  of  metals.  The  final 
manifestation  of  the  divine  majesty,  or  the  coming  of  Khshathra 
Vairya's  v^ished-for  Kingdom  will  be  attended  by  the  ordeal  of 
molten  metal.  Mazda  will  give  his  reward  unto  the  righteous 
and  retribution  unto  the  wicked  by  bringing  about  the  division 
between  them  through  the  instrumentality  of  the  fiery  metals.^^ 
This  refers  to  the  flood  of  molten  metal,  described  in  the  texts 
of  the  later  periods,  through  which  the  good  and  evil  will  be 
made  to  pass  at  the  final  dispensation.^" 

Armaiti 

The  personified  female  abstraction  of  devotion.  Armaiti, 
like  Aramati,  her  counterpart  in  the  Vedas,  stands  for  the  spirit 
of  devotion.  The  attribute  spenta,  '  holy,'  is  the  epithet  some- 
times prefixed  to  her  name  in  the  Gathas.  During  the  Later 
Avestan  period  this  title  becomes  an  indispensable  part  of  the 
name  of  the  divine  qualities  she  embodies. 

Armaiti  gives  the  infallible  ordinances  of  Ahura  Mazda." 
She  is  the  daughter  of  the  Deity,^^  ^nd  it  is  with  their  conjoined 
help  that  man  can  aspire  to  reach  the  final  goal  of  being  God- 
like. The  realization  of  the  wisdom  of  Vohu  Manah  and  the 
devotion  of  Armaiti  help  man  in  like  manner  to  attain  to  the 
ideal  state  of  righteousness.  If  it  is  Vohu  Manah  that  cleanses 
man's  mind  from  all  evil  thoughts  and  enlightens  it,  it  is  Armaiti 
that  sanctifies  his  heart,  and  sanctity  is  paramount  for  man  from 
his  birth.*'^  Zarathushtra  insists  upon  the  fact  that  it  is  with  the 
help  of  the  virtues  both  of  the  head  and  of  the  heart,  as  we  have 
already  seen,  that  the  soul  can  steer  its  bark  safely  in  the  ocean 

"'  Ys.  33.  13 ;  43-  8. 

"Ys.  30.  7;  32.  7;  51-  9-  ,       , 

*"  See  Jackson,  On  Avestan  ayokhshusta    molten  metal,   ayah,  and  its 
sigtiificance  in  the  Gathas,  in  JAOS.  15.  Proceedings,  Iviii-Ixi. 
-^  Ys.  43.  6. 
''  Ys.  45-  4. 
»"  Ys.  48.  5. 


38  MAZDA'S  MINISTERING  ANGELS 

of  life,  and  reach  its  destined  place,  for  Armaiti  is  Ahura  Mazda's 
own.***     She  is  the  Lord's  beloved;  she  inquires  after  the  mis- 
deeds even  of  the  true  as  well  as  the  false,  and  the  shortcomings 
of  the  wise  and  the  ignorant.''^     Whoso,  knowing  this  fact,  still 
continues  perversely  to  associate  with  evil  and  estrange  himself 
from  devotion,  finds  himself  deserted  by  righteousness.'^'^     The 
wise  man  does  not  fall  into  this  error.    He  takes  Armaiti  to  be  the 
comrade  of  righteousness,"  and  develops  the  devotional  side  of 
his  character.     Zarathushtra   prays   her  to   instruct  men's   con- 
science  through  righteousness.''^     Armaiti,   consequently    is  im- 
plored to  grant  the  might  and  power  that  may  enable  man  to 
uphold  righteousness,  and  to  bestow  the  riches  of  Ashi  together 
with  the  life  of  Vohu  Manah."®     She  it  is  that  furthers  right- 
eousness.^"    She  is  asked  to  send  good  sovereigns  and  not  wicked 
ones  to  rule  over  the  world."    Devotion  does  not  thrive  in  the 
domain  of  the  wicked.    Zarathushtra  asks  the  pious  Frashaoshtra 
to  follow  the  path  in  which  righteousness  and  devotion  are  united 
in  one."     A  longing  desire  is  expressed   for  the  approach   of 
Armaiti    accompanied    by    Asha."      The    wicked    Bendva,    who 
opposes    every    action   of    the    prophet,    does    not   acknowledge 
Armaiti ;  ^*  hence  he  is  accursed.     Zarathushtra,  in  exaltation  of 
spirit,  pours  out  his  soul  to  Armaiti  and  speaks  of  himself  as  the 
first  and  the  most  devout  of  men  in  veneration  of  her  ideals  and 
inquires  how  devotion  may  be  more  widely  spread  among  those  to 
whom  he  preaches  the  new  faith.^^     It  may  be  easily  compre- 
hended, therefore,  how  Armaiti  will  co-operate  with  Mazda  at 
the  final  dispensation.^^ 

Devotion  is  indispensable  to  religious  life.  It  is  the  whole- 
hearted attachment  to  a  cause  that  leads  men  to  embrace  it  and 
to  work  for  it  at  all  cost;  and  Zarathushtra,  besides  appealing 
to  the  rational  side  of  man,  approaches  the  heart  of  the  individual 
to  instil  religious  fervour  in  him.  Vohu  Manah  teaches  man  to 
know  Ahura  Mazda,  Armaiti  inspires  him  to  love  the  Lord. 
The  religion  that  Zoroaster  preaches  is  productive  of  excellent 
results  for  those  who  devote  their  hearts  unto  Ahura  Mazda. ^^ 
Such  devout  persons  translate  the  noble  teachings  of  the  sage 

'*  Ys.  31.  9.  "  Ys.  43.  I.  '"  Ys.  49.  2. 

«=  Ys.  31.  12.  '°  Ys.  44-  6.  "  Ys.  44-  n- 

•'  Ys.  34.  9.  "  Ys.  48-  5-  "  Ys.  47-  6. 

•'  Ys.  34.  10.  "  Ys.  46.  16.  "  Ys.  31.  I- 

"'Ys.  33-  13-  "Ys.  48.  II. 


MAZDA'S  MINISTERING  ANGELS  39 

into  the  practical  life,  and  become  religious.  Devotion  makes 
them  holy.'^^  The  faith  that  is  thus  born  in  them  from  the 
depths  of  their  hearts  sustains  them  in  the  midst  of  all  mishaps. 
Zarathushtra  with  the  fervour  of  devotion  prays  that  faith  may 
come  to  them  to  transform  their  lives. 

Homage,  invocation,  sacrifice,  and  the  outpouring  of  prayer 
are  the  various  expressions  of  the  inward  longings  of  man  to 
commune  with  the  divine,  to  enter  into  mutual  intercourse 
with  him.  These  are  outlets  through  which  man  pours  forth 
his  heart  to  the  fountain  of  all  bounty.  The  individual  who 
surrenders  himself  to  the  unseen  powers,  who  kneels  down  in 
humility  at  the  altar,  who  with  uplifted  hands  pays  homage  to 
the  hidden  forces  behind  the  rising  sun  or  the  waxing  moon 
or  the  roaring  ocean,  and  who  carries  an  offering  to  the  fire  or 
a  libation  to  the  waters  is  psychologically  greatly  affected.  Such 
attitudes  of  spirit  have  great  subjective  value,  for  they  deeply 
influence  man's  character.  Prayer  is  the  highest  type  of  ex- 
pression through  which  man  conveys  to  his  Heavenly  Father 
his  feelings  of  joy  and  sorrow,  gratitude  and  love,  hope  and 
fear,  or  in  his  hunger  and  thirst  for  the  divine  grace  lays  down 
his  grievances  before  him,  confesses  his  guilt,  craves  for  help, 
seeks  mercy.  Devotion  is  the  first  requisite.  Mere  muttering  of 
a  few  formulas  with  the  lips,  while  the  heart  does  not  pulsate 
with  devotional  fervour,  is  no  prayer.  Where  there  is  no  such 
prayer,  there  is  no  devotion;  and  where  there  is  no  devotion, 
there  is  no  religion. 

It  may  be  mentioned  that  Armaiti's  relation  to  the  earth  as 
her  genius,  which  becomes  most  pronounced  in  the  Later  Avestan 
period,  is  hinted  at  only  incidentally  in  the  Gathas.'^'^ 

Haurvatat  and  Ameretat 

Dual  divinities  of  perfection  and  immortality.  Haurvatat 
is  the  fulfilment  of  the  end  of  man's  life  on  this  earth,  as 
Ameretat  is  to  be  the  eternal  prize  for  his  soul  in  the  next  world. 
The  faithful  look  to  these  two  divine  impersonations  that  they 
may  grant  happiness  to  the  true-in-heart,  both  now  and  for 
evermore.  Haurvatat  and  Ameretat  form  a  spiritual  pair  in- 
dissolubly  bound  together  with  the  welfare  of  mankind,  and  the 

"Ys.  51.  21.  "  Cf.  Ys.  47- 3. 


40  MAZDA'S  MINISTERING  ANGELS 

two  are  always  celebrated  together.  No  single  prayer  is  ad- 
dressed to  Haurvatat  or  to  Ameretat  alone  in  the  Gathas,  and 
they  form  the  only  instance  of  dual  divinities  in  these  hymns, 
though  such  pairs  of  angels  are  common  in  the  Later  Avesta. 

Yet  Haurvatat  and  Ameretat  are  not  simply  the  active 
agents  working  side  by  side  for  the  advancement  of  the  kingdom 
of  Ahura  Mazda.  They  represent,  likewise,  the  passive  states 
of  perfection,  felicity,  and  immortality,  which  are  the  rewards 
of  the  pious.  Haurvatat's  perfection  forms  the  loftiest  ideal 
for  man  during  his  life.  Vohu  Manah's  wisdom,  Asha's  right- 
eousness, and  Armaiti's  devotion  help  man  to  redeem  himself 
on  earth  from  the  physical  and  moral  imperfections  which  his 
human  nature  entails  upon  him.  If  man  takes  advantage  of  this 
help  Ameretat's  eternal  life  of  felicity  will  be  the  incomparable 
reward  that  Ahura  Mazda,  as  the  embodiment  of  perfection, 
will  confer  upon  him  in  the  Divine  Kingdom  of  Khshathra 
Vairya. 

Figuratively  Haurvatat  and  Ameretat  represent  the  ambrosial 
food  of  the  blessed  ones  in  heaven  ^°  and  are  emblematic  of 
immortality.  Whoso  in  this  world  listens  to  Zoroaster  and  ac- 
cepts his  message  will  receive  perfection  and  immortality.*^  The 
prophet  himself  fervently  prays  for  the  promised  participation 
in  these  blessings  and  declares  that  he  who  embraces  righteous- 
ness shall  attain  to  this  celestial  boon.^^  The  man  who  offers 
the  sacrifice  of  devotion  unto  Ahura  ]\Iazda  receives  endurance 
and  vigour  of  body  in  this  world  and  secures  perfection  and 
immortality  of  the  spirit  in  the  next  world,*^  for  endurance  and 
vigour  of  body  in  this  world  correspond  to  the  perfection  and 
immortality  of  the  spirit  in  the  future  existence.**  These  two 
Zoroastrian  spiritual  concepts  occur  together  in  the  Gathas.*^ 
Armaiti  as  a  spirit  on  earth  is  besought  to  grant  endurance  and 
vigour  in  order  to  enable  man  to  uphold  righteousness.*^  The 
faithful  stand  in  need  of  these  earthly  blessings  that  they  may 
be  able  the  better  to  withstand  evil  in  this  world  and  to  con- 
duct an  active  crusade  against  wickedness,  and  thus  to  further 
righteousness. 

*»  Ys.  34.  II.  ''  See  Jackson,  GIrPh.  2.  638. 

"Ys.  45.  5-  "Ys.  34.  11;  51.  7. 

"Ys.  44-  -i-l.  "Ys.  43.  I. 
"  Ys.  45.  10. 


MAZDA'S  MINISTERING  ANGELS  41 

Haurvatat  and  Ameretat  have  their  sacred  manthras,  or 
formulas,  and  he  who  pronounces  these  gets  the  best  reward.®^ 

Water  and  plants  are  consecrated  to  Haurvatat  and 
Ameretat.  On  the  material  side  Haurvatat  and  Ameretat  preside 
respectively  over  water  and  plants.  As  such  they  play  an  im- 
portant part  in  the  Later  Avesta.  In  one  passage  at  least  in 
the  Gathas  they  are  mentioned  side  by  side  with  water  and  plants. 
Ahura  Mazda,  who  has  created  the  animals,  water,  and  plants, 
grants  Haurvatat's  perfection  and  Ameretat's  immortality. 


88 


Sraosha 

The  angel  of  religious  obedience.  In  the  Gathas  Sraosha 
is  among  the  very  few  personified  abstractions  corresponding 
to  the  concept  of  angels  that  have  any  distinct  personality  at 
all  and  that  were  destined  to  rise  to  prominence  in  the  Later 
Avesta.  Sraosha  impersonates  the  obedience  to  religious  lore. 
Professor  Jackson  calls  him  the  priest-divinity,  who  acts  as  an 
embodiment  of  the  divine  service.^^  Zarathushtra  longs  to  see 
Sraosha,^"  and  prays  that  the  angel  of  obedience  may  come 
unto  himself  and  also  unto  every  man  whom  Mazda  wills.^^  The 
prophet  preaches  the  new  faith  to  the  world  of  humanity.  He 
exhorts  mankind  to  pay  heed  to  the  words  of  untold  goodness,^^ 
which  the  lord  Mazda  has  vouchsafed  unto  him,  and  to  embrace 
this  cardinal  virtue  of  obedience  to  the  divine  teachings,  which  is 
the  province  of  this  angel.  Zarathushtra,  in  this  manner,  works 
to  bring  about  the  dominion  and  power  of  Mazda  through  the 
inauguration  of  righteousness  upon  the  earth.^^  In  the  later 
periods  Sraosha  acts  as  a  co-assessor  with  Mithra  and  Rashnu, 
who  all  combine  to  make  up  a  heavenly  tribunal  for  the  judgment 
of  the  dead.  Mithra  and  Rashnu,  the  two  brother  judges,  seated 
with  Sraosha,  do  not  appear  in  the  Gathas,  but  a  passage  speaks 
of  Sraosha's  coming  as  an  angel  of  judgment  with  the  reward 
unto   the   contending  parties   between   good   and   evil.^*     Zara- 

"  Ys.  31.  6. 

**Ys.  51.  7;  cf;  Darmesteter,  Haurvatat  et  Ameretat  in  Bibhotheque 
de  I'Ecole  des  Hautes  Etudes,  23.  35  ff. 
*"  GIrPh.  2.  643. 
»"  Ys.  28.  5. 
"  Ys.  44.  16. 
Ys.  45.  5. 
'  Ys.  33.  14. 
'  Ys.  43.  12. 


82 


42  MAZDA'S  MINISTERING  ANGELS 

thushtra  invokes  Sraosha  as  the  greatest  of  the  heavenly  beings 
to  appear  at  the  final  Consummation  of  the  World.^^ 

The  word  sraosha  occurs  also  in  several  Gathic  passages 
with  its  ordinary  meaning  of  obedience,  and  not  as  the  personified 
spirit  of  this  abstract  virtue. 

.    Atar 

The  fire  cult.  The  early  Aryan  settlers  of  Iran  had  brought 
the  cult  to  their  new  home  as  their  cherished  heritage  bequeathed 
to  them  by  their  Indo-Iranian  ancestors.  Tradition  speaks  of 
several  great  sacred  Iranian  fires  consecrated  by  the  pre-Zoro- 
astrian  kings.  The  Pahlavi  Bundahishn  mentions  the  fact  that 
Yima  and  Kavi  Haosravah  established  the  fires  Froba  and 
Goshasp;  and  that  Vishtaspa,  the  royal  patron  of  Zarathushtra, 
consecrated  the  fire  Burzin  Mihr.^*'  The  Muhammadan  writers 
of  the  tenth  century  speak  of  some  ten  such  places  dedicated  to 
fire  before  Zoroaster's  time.^^  The  prophet  of  Iran  thus  found 
the  cuh  of  fire  already  established  in  Iran  when  he  entered  upon 
his  divine  mission  on  earth.  He  purified  its  archaic  form  and 
incorporated  the  cult  into  his  new  system.  Of  all  the  elements 
he  raised  fire,  or  light,  to  a  place  of  the  highest  distinction  in 
his  faith. 

Ahura  Mazda  is  eternal  light,  his  very  nature  is  light.  He 
lives  in  the  everlasting  lights  of  the  highest  heaven.  Light  in  its 
various  manifestations,  whether  as  the  fire  of  the  hearth  on 
earth,  or  the  fiery  substance  in  the  bowels  of  the  earth,  or  as 
the  genial  glow  of  the  sun  in  the  azure  vault  of  heaven,  or 
the  silvery  sheen  of  the  crescent  moon  in  the  sky,  or  the  flicker- 
ing brilliancy  of  the  stars  in  the  firmament,  or  even  in  the  form 
of  life-giving  energy  distributed  unto  the  entire  creation,  is 
emblematic  of  Mazda.  No  wonder,  then,  if  the  prophet  of 
Ancient  Iran  made  fire  the  consecrated  symbol  of  his  religion, 
a  symbol  which  in  point  of  sublimity,  grandeur,  and  purity,  or 
in  its  being  the  nearest  earthly  image  of  the  heavenly  Lord, 
is  unequalled  by  any  of  its  kind  in  the  world. 

When  Vohu  Manah.  the  Grand  Vizir  of  the  heavenly  king- 
dom,   approaches    Zarathushtra,    and    inquires    of    him    what   is 

"  Ys.  33-  5. 

"'Bd.  17.  5-8. 

*'  On  the  different  fires,  see  especially  Jackson,  Zoroaster,  pp.  98-100. 


MAZDA'S  MINISTERING  ANGELS  43 

his  most  ardent  desire,  the  prophet  repHes  that  his  inmost  yearn- 
ing is  to  think  of  righteousness  through  the  devotional  gifts  of 
his  homage  to  Fire.^^  When  the  chosen  of  the  Lord  is  thwarted 
at  times  in  his  great  mission  by  the  Druj,  or  Lie,  he  turns  to 
Fire  as  one  of  the  protectors  that  will  best  help  him  in  the 
furtherance  of  the  mighty  cause  of  righteousness.^^  The  fire 
of  Mazda  plays  an  important  role  in  the  work  of  the  last  judg- 
ment at  the  final  Renovation  of  the  World.  Mazda  has  promised 
through  righteousness  that  he  will  give  award  unto  the  contend- 
ing parties  of  good  and  evil  through  Fire.^°°  The  Heavenly 
Father  will  deliver  his  final  judgment  upon  the  righteous  and 
the  wicked  through  Fire  together  with  the  Holy  Spirit.^°^  It 
is  through  Fire  that  the  creator  will  bestow  profit  upon  the 
righteous  and  bring  harm  unto  the  wicked.^"-  Mazda  will 
apportion  reward  and  retribution  to  both  the  good  and  the  evil 
through  the  glow  of  Fire,  which  is  emblematic  of  righteousness.^"^ 
The  believers  therefore  pray  that  Fire,  which  is  mighty  through 
righteousness,  may  be  a  manifest  help  unto  the  faithful,  but  a 
veritable  harm  unto  the  foe.^°*  The  noble  truth  of  the  prophetic 
words  of  Zarathushtra  will,  in  this  manner,  be  vindicated  when, 
at  the  final  Dispensation,  divine  judgment  shall  be  meted  out  to 
man  through  the  red  Fire  of  Mazda.^"^ 

Ash  I 

She  personifies  sanctity.  This  female  genius  of  sanctity 
represents  the  life  of  piety  and  its  concomitant  result.  In  an 
eschatological  sense  she  forms  the  reward  assured  in  heaven  to 
those  who  have  led  a  life  of  sanctity  upon  earth.  It  is  with 
the  accompaniment  of  Ashi's  recompense  that  the  angel  Sraosha 
approaches  the  seat  of  judgment  to  reward  the  righteous  and 
wicked  souls. ^°*^  Zarathushtra  invokes  her  in  his  crusade  against 
Druj,  or  the  Lie.^°"  Ashi  apportions  Mazda's  ordinances,  about 
which  the  prophet  desires  to  learn.^°^  Whosoever,  through  the 
power  that  Ashi  confers  upon  him,  deprives  the  wicked  of  his 
possessions,  reaps  the  rewards  that  Mazda  has  promised.^°^ 

In  the  later  development  of  Ashi's  cult,  her  sphere  of  activity 

''  Ys.  43.  9-  ""  Ys.  SI.  9.  "'  Ys.  43.  12. 

""  Ys.  46.  7-  "'  Ys.  43.  4.  "'  Ys.  31.  4- 

""  Ys.  31.  3.  "*  Ys.  34.  4.  "«  Ys.  34-  12. 

"^  Ys.  47.  6.  "' Ys.  31.  19.  "'' Ys.  50.  3. 


44  MAZDA'S  MINISTERING  ANGELS 

is  enlarged,  and  in  addition  to  representing  the  reward  of  the 
pious  in  heaven,  she  stands  also  for  the  prize  of  those  who 
are  diligent  on  earth.  She  becomes  the  genius  of  fortune,  and 
the  eager  eyes  of  her  numerous  votaries  are  always  turned 
to  her  for  her  favour.  This  new  phase  of  her  activity  will 
receive  attention  in  the  place  assigned  to  her  in  our  treatment  of 
the  Later  Avestan  period. 

Geush  Tashan  and  Geush  Urvan 

The  spirits  of  animal  life,  or  of  the  universe.  Two  beings 
that  are  personified  and  enact  an  important  role  in  introducing 
Zarathushtra  as  the  chosen  prophet  of  Ahura  Mazda  to  man- 
kind are  Geush  Tashan,  '  the  fashioner  of  the  cow,'  and 
Geush  Urvan,  '  the  soul  of  the  bull  or  cow,'  as  representing 
cattle  in  general.  The  relation  between  Ahura  Mazda  and 
Geush  Tashan  is  very  subtle,  and  has  led  scholars  to  be  divided 
in  their  interpretation  of  these  abstractions.  One  view  is  that 
Geush  Tashan  is  the  personification  of  the  creative  activity  of 
Mazda,  and  is  not  separate  from  the  godhead.  Some  scholars 
are  inclined  to  take  Geush  Tashan  as  an  independent  being, 
who  has  created  animal  life.^^°  Some  again  take  the  cow  as 
typifying  the  earth,  or  as  her  symbol,  and  interpret  Geush  Tashan 
and  Geush  Urvan  as  representing  the  entire  universe.^^^ 

Geush  Urvan  as  representing  the  animal  world  complains  in 
a  bewailing  tone  to  Ahura  Mazda  that  anger,  rapine,  plunder,  and 
wickedness  are  harassing  its  very  existence,  and  therefore  its 
soul  sighs  for  a  deliverer.^^-  The  spirit  of  the  kine  longs  for 
a  saviour  who  would  teach  men  to  put  down  this  mischief  and 
diligently  work  for  the  kine's  welfare,  grow  fodder  for  their 
nurture,  and  lead  an  active  and  an  industrious  life.  Zarathushtra, 
in  other  words,  has  preached  the  advantages  of  a  settled  life,  and 
persuaded  his  hearers  to  emerge  from  the  pastoral  life  and  em- 
brace agricultural  habits.  This  is  a  stage  of  transition,  and  all 
could  not  easily  give  up  the  unsettled  habits  of  life  in  which  they 
were  brought  up.    There  is  much  disorder  in  the  world,  and  the 

^"  Cf.  specially  Bartholomae,  AF.  3.  25-29 ;  for  references  to  other 
views,  see  Jackson,  GIrPh.  2.  633;  Moulton,  Early  Zoroastrianism, 
p.  347,  London,  1913.  _ 

^"  Cf.  Haug,  Essays  on  the  Sacred  Language,  Writings,  and  Religion 
of  the  Parsis,  p.  148,  London,  1884. 

""  Ys.  29.  I. 


MAZDA'S  MINISTERING  ANGELS  45 

situation  demands  the  services  of  a  great  master-mind,  a  genius, 
a  philosopher,  nay  a  prophet.  Ahura  Mazda  holds  a  celestial 
conference  to  redress  the  grievances  of  the  Soul  of  the  Kine. 
This  hope  softens  its  despair.  After  patient  deliberations,  in 
which  Vohu  Manah,  Asha,  Geush  Tashan,  and  the  other  heavenly- 
lords  take  part,  Vohu  Manah,  the  premier  councillor,  declares 
that  Zarathushtra  is  the  only  mortal  who  has  heard  the  divine 
commands,  and  he  is  the  one  person  suited  to  be  sent  to  the 
world  as  the  spiritual  and  temporal  lord  who  could  remove  the 
grievances  of  Geush  Urvan.^^^ 

We  can  see  in  this  account  an  attempt  to  convince  the  dis- 
believers and  heretics  of  the  true  mission  of  the  prophet.  The 
later  texts  resort  to  miracles  of  various  sorts  to  fulfil  the  same 
purpose.  Those  who  have  not  yet  come,  in  Gathic  times,  to  any 
definite  conclusion  as  to  the  choice  of  their  faith,  and  are  still 
hesitating  before  embracing  the  new  creed,  are  shown  how 
preparations  were  made  in  heaven  for  Zarathushtra's  mission, 
and  how  with  divine  sanction  and  direct  approval  of  the  god- 
head, the  new  prophet  comes  to  them  for  their  good. 

"=■  Ys.  29,  8. 


CHAPTER  VI 
EVIL 

The  imperfect  side  of  existence.  The  origin  of  evil  has 
been  the  deepest  problem  of  life.  It  confronts  every  human 
being  in  one  form  or  another.  If  there  is  one  question  v^^hich 
has  eluded  all  investigations  of  the  keenest  intellects  of  all 
lands  and  of  all  times ;  if  there  is  one  problem  which  has  called 
forth  volumes  of  writings  from  the  profoundest  of  thinkers ;  if 
there  is  one  riddle  that  has  baffled  all  attempts  of  the  sages  at 
solving  it;  if  there  is  one  problem  on  which  the  last  word 
yet  remains  to  be  said,  despite  the  world's  voluminous  literature 
of  some  ten  and  twenty  centuries — it  is  this  problem  of  the 
existence  of  evil.  It  makes  a  world  of  difference  whether  one 
looks  on  life  with  a  healthy  mind  and  a  cheerful  spirit,  or  with 
a  morbid  mind  and  a  sick  spirit,  or  with  an  arrogant  mind  and 
a  defiant  spirit.  The  philosophies  of  life  vary  greatly  from 
optimism  or  pessimism  to  cynicism  or  scepticism,  according  to 
the  various  casts  of  the  temperaments  of  their  founders.  Life 
has  been  a  blessing  to  some,  but  a  curse  to  others.  Some  have 
sought  satisfaction  by  giving  up  the  world  of  activity  with  its 
joys  and  sorrows,  others  have  tried  to  escape  the  temptations 
and  vices  of  the  world  by  leading  a  life  of  self-renunciation.  To 
others  still,  freedom  from  existing  has  seemed  the  only  salvation. 

The  creation  has  not  only  a  bright  but  also  a  dark  side,  and 
the  latter  is  to  be  accounted  for.  All  is  not  well  with  the  uni- 
verse. There  is  something  that  savours  of  bad.  The  optimist 
who  says  that  all  is  right  with  the  world  is  as  much  at  fault 
as  the  pessimist  who  says  that  all  is  wrong.  It  is  not  good 
to  dilate  upon  wrongs,  real  and  imaginary,  and  pine  away  under 
melancholy  and  gloom ;  it  is  wrong  to  groan  and  worry  over 
the  darkness  of  the  night,  oblivious  of  the  light  of  the  day ;  but  it 
is  equally  wrong  to  dismiss  this  great  question  in  a  rough-and- 
ready  way  by  denying  outright  the  existence  of  evil.  We  cannot 
dismiss  this  eternal  problem  with  a  shrug  of  the  shoulder.     Evil 

46 


EVIL  47 

is  far  too  potent  a  factor  in  human  life  to  permit  us  to  turn  a 
blind  eye  to  it.  It  is  too  real  to  be  ignored  and  sophistically 
explained  away.  There  have  been  people  by  thousands  in  all 
ages  who  have  lived  and  died  with  tears  ever  streaming  from 
their  eyes,  on  whom  the  bright  sun  of  joy  has  never  shone. 
Fierce  has  been  their  struggle  for  the  bare  necessaries  of  life. 
Ill  treated  by  the  world,  forsaken  by  fortune,  mercilessly  handled 
by  society,  millions  eke  out  their  wretched  existence,  labouring 
in  vain  to  assuage  the  agonies  of  their  hearts.  Life  has  meant 
one  prolonged  misery  to  them  and  clouds  of  sorrow  have  obscured 
the  very  springs  of  joy.  The  garden  of  creation  abounds  in  lovely 
sights,  sweet  flowers,  and  beautiful  verdure,  but  there  are  also 
thorns  and  thistles,  weeds  and  brambles,  that  require  to  be  cleared 
out.  The  world,  despite  its  infinite  good,  has  a  portion  of  evil 
in  it.  This  requires  mending.  The  physical  and  moral  imper- 
fections are  too  manifest  to  be  passed  over.  The  world  is  not 
perfect,  it  stands  in  need  of  perfection.  The  universe  is  not 
complete,  it  requires  completion.  The  world  is  not  ideal,  but 
moves  towards  the  ideal. 

Zarathushtra  stigmatizes  evil  as  evil.  The  prophet  of 
Mazda  postulates  the  independent  existence  of  evil.  To  him  evil 
is  justevil,  nothing  more  nor  less.  It  is  not  an  unripe  good,  nor 
is  it  good  in  the  making.  It  is  the  sorest  spot  on  the  surface  of 
the  universe,  and  Zarathushtra  puts  his  finger  upon  it.  Illusion 
does  not  cause  evil,  it  exists  in  the  realm  of  reality.  It  is  the 
most  disagreeable  fact  of  God's  universe,  and  the  prophet  of 
Iran  looks  it  in  the  face.  If  man  is  conscious  of  a  law  of  Asha, 
or  Righteousness  working  within  him,  he  is  at  the  same  time 
aware  of  a  counter-law  of  Druj,  or  Wickedness,  equally  at 
work.  The  latter  is  not  a  negation  of  the  former,  it  has  as 
positive  an  existence  as  the  law  of  righteousness.  Both  prin- 
ciples are  constantly  at  work  in  man.  It  is  man's  duty  to  stand 
for  the  cause  of  righteousness.  He  is  created  in  this  world 
to  fight  against  the  evil.  He  plays  a  prominent  part  in  the 
eternal  struggle  between  good  and  evil.  In  this  great  conflict 
he  is  a  co-worker  and  a  fellow-combatant  with  Ahura  Mazda. 
Men  of  all  times  and  in  all  places  have  to  work  individually  and 
collectively  for  this  mighty  cause.  Zarathushtra  nurtures  a 
type  of  militant  instinct  to  combat  the  Evil  Spirit.  The  true 
life  is  a  constant  efifort  to  mitigate  the  wrongs  of  the  world. 


48  EVIL 

Man  has  to  fight  the  forces  of  evil  to  his  last  breath.  His  life 
is  one  of  a  continued  crusade  against  the  powers  of  wicked- 
ness and  imperfection.  Physical  and  moral  imperfections  are 
to  be  gradually  removed,  and  the  entire  creation  is  to  be  pushed 
forward  towards  the  ideal  of  perfection.  Social  wrongs  are  to 
be  adjusted,  society  is  to  be  regenerated.  In  short,  the  world 
of  humanity  is  to  be  redeemed. 

Angra  Mai  NYU 

The  Evil  Spirit  and  his  characteristics.  The  arch-fiend  who 
disputes  the  kingdom  on  earth  with  the  Holy  Spirit,  Spenta 
Mainyu,  or  with  Ahura  Mazda,  who  introduces  discord  and  death 
in  the  world,  who  strives  to  thwart  the  purposes  of  God,  is 
Angra  Mainyu,  or  the  Evil  Spirit.  He  does  not  owe  his  exist- 
ence to  the  Good  Spirit.  He  is  independent.  Consequently 
he  is  co-eval  and  co-existent,  if  not  co-eternal  with  the  godhead. 
When  this  Spirit  of  Evil  first  met  his  adversary,  he  created 
death.^  In  his  thoughts,  words,  deeds,  faith,  conscience,  soul, 
and  everything  else,  he  stands  at  the  opposite  pole  to  the  Spirit 
of  Goodness.^  The  Daevas,  or  demons,  have  entered  into  a  com- 
pact with  the  Evil  Spirit,  and  have  chosen  him  as  their  liege.* 
They  are  his  confederates  and  associates.  The  wicked  man  is 
the  like  of  Angra,  nay,  he  is  himself  Angra,  or  the  enemy.*  The 
term  angra  is  also  used  in  the  ordinary  meaning  '  evil '  as  a 
designation  of  wicked  men.^  In  this  particular  case  it  does  not 
refer  to  the  Evil  Spirit.  The  devil  lures  men  by  his  mischievous 
machinations  to  the  path  of  wickedness,  and  lulls  their  spiritual 
sense  to  repose.  He  is  the  inveterate  foe  of  humanity.  Man, 
we  may  infer  from  the  tone  of  the  Gathas,  should  avoid  him 
as  he  would  a  pestilence.  Fortunate  is  he  who  successfully 
bridles  the  tumult  of  the  Wicked  One  and  breaks  the  heavy 
chains  that  fetter  his  spirit.  But  woe  be  to  him  who  revolts 
from  the  Good  Spirit,  pays  homage  to  the  author  of  evil,  and 
lives  in  bondage  to  him.  Such  a  man  is  a  moral  pervert,  a  rebel, 
and  suffers  death  in  the  spirit.  The  normal  state  of  man  is  to  be 
always  on  the  side  of  the  good,  and  by  any  act  of  going  over  to 
the  realm  of  evil  he  creates  for  himself  an  unnatural  situation. 
His  sacred  duty  is  to  espouse  the  cause  of  the  Good  Spirit. 

'  Ys.  30.  4.  '  Ys.  30.  6.  "  Ys.  43.  IS- 

'  Ys.  45.  2.  *  Ys.  44.  12. 


EVIL  49 


Daevas 


The  infernal  crew.  The  diabolic  spirits  who  have  entered 
into  a  compact  with  Angra  Mainyu  to  mar  the  good  creation 
of  Ahura  Mazda  are  the  Daevas,  or  demons.  They  are  the 
offspring  of  the  Evil  Mind  and  spread  their  mischief  over  all  the 
seven  zones.*'  The  Evil  Spirit  has  taught  them  to  mislead  men 
through  evil  thought,  evil  word,  and  evil  deedJ  Mazda  best 
remembers  the  misdeeds  of  these  recreants  and  he  judges  accord- 
ingly.^ When  the  two  primal  spirits  of  good  and  evil  came  to- 
gether at  the  beginning  of  creation  the  demons  chose  evil  and 
rushed  with  one  accord  to  bring  destruction  to  mankind.^  The 
wicked  are  the  beloved  of  the  demons,  for  they  are  the  ones 
that  renounce  the  Good  Mind  and  revolt  from  the  wisdom  of 
Ahura  Mazda  and  from  Righteousness.^"  The  demons  should 
therefore  be  abjured  ^^  and  the  Saviour  Saoshyant  will  be  the 
friend,  brother,  and  father  of  those  who  hate  them.^^ 

As  Ahura  Mazda  holds  his  council  of  celestial  beings,  so 
Angra  Mainyu  maintains  in  his  infernal  court  a  retinue  of  male 
and  female  demons.  In  opposition  to  every  archangel  and  angel, 
— and  these  terms  may  be  so  understood  theologically — the 
younger  literature  sets  up  a  corresponding  fiend.  These  form 
exact  counterparts  of  the  powers  of  goodness,  and  always  act 
in  direct  opposition  to  them.  We  do  not  find  the  symmetry  of 
diametric  opposites  between  these  rival  forces  carried  out  to 
completion  in  the  extant  Gathic  literature.  The  names  of  not 
all  the  corresponding  demons,  who  are  the  opponents  of  Mazda's 
ministering  angels,  are  found.  The  rivals  of  Vohu  Manah,  Asha, 
and  Sraosha  are  mentioned  by  name,  as  Aka  Manah,  Druj,  and 
Aeshma,  but  with  the  exception  of  Druj,  the  adversary  of  Asha, 
the  rest  are  seen  working  only  sporadically  and  not  in  a  sys- 
tematic antagonism  to  their  corresponding  rival  good  spirits. 
Taromaiti,  or  heresy,  the  opponent  of  Armaiti,  is  named  but 
once,^^  though  the  term  does  not  occur  in  this  particular  passage 
as  a  personified  demon.  Aka  Manah,  Druj,  and  Aeshma  are  the 
only  Daevas  expressly  mentioned  in  the  Gathas.  We  shall  deal 
with  these  separately. 

"¥5.32.3.  «Ys.  30.  6.  "Ys.  45-11. 

'  Ys.  32.  5.  "  Ys.  32.  4.  "  Ys.  33.  4. 

'  Ys.  29.  4.  "  Ys.  34.  5- 


50  EVIL 


Aka  Manah 


The  work  of  this  arch-demon.  This  evil  spirit,  whose  name 
means  '  Evil  Mind,'  is  mentioned  only  twice  in  the  Gathas.  Even 
in  his  name  he  is  the  antithesis  of  his  heavenly  rival  Vohu 
Manah,  or  Good  Mind.  Like  his  celestial  adversary,  who  is 
sometimes  called  Vahishta  Manah,  '  Best  Mind,'  this  fiend  is  also 
styled  Achishta  Manah,  or  '  Worst  Mind.'  ^*  The  Daevas  are  his 
progeny.^^  Zarathushtra  undertakes  by  his  prayer  to  drive  out 
the  demon  of  Evil  Mind  from  before  him,  that  is,  from  the 
world  of  Righteousness.^*'  When  man's  mind  is  not  filled  with 
good  thoughts  of  Vohu  Manah,  it  becomes  an  easy  prey  to  the 
onslaughts  of  the  evil  thoughts  of  Aka  Manah.  Whosoever  is  a 
victim  to  Aka  Manah  finds  his  thoughts  enslaved  by  that  demon. 


Druj 

Her  Kingdom  of  Wickedness.  As  the  rival  of  Asha,  or 
Righteousness,  Druj  personifies  Wickedness  in  every  form  and 
aspect.  Ever  since  the  Evil  Spirit  introduced  evil  in  the  world, 
the  world  of  humanity  has  been  and  will  be,  until  the  final  Reno- 
vation of  the  universe,  divided  into  two  distinct  parties.  Those 
on  the  side  of  Ahura  Mazda  follow  the  law  of  Righteousness; 
but  those  who  have  chosen  to  live  in  error  have  embraced  the 
law  of  Druj,  or  Wickedness.  The  righteous  form  together  the 
world  of  righteousness,  whereas  the  wicked  ones  are  classed  as 
the  members  of  the  world  of  wickedness.  The  sacred  mission 
of  Zaratliushtra  lies  in  the  work  of  converting  these  misguided 
men  to  righteousness  and  in  winning  them  over  to  the  side  of 
Ahura  Mazda. 

The  adherents  of  Druj.  The  man  who  yields  to  the  tempta- 
tions of  Druj  is  a  dregvant,  '  wicked  one,'  as  opposed  to  the 
ashavan,  '  righteous  one,'  who  follows  Asha."  The  adjective 
dregvant  is  itself  etymologically  connected  with  the  word  druj, 
'  deceit,  wickedness.'  Angra  Mainyu  himself  is  called  dregvant}'^ 
The  wicked  one  is  of  evil  faith. ^''  He  defies  the  good  admonitions 
of  the  Deity  and  is  not  willing  to  hear  the  good  counsel,  the  divine 
word  of  the  Good  Mind.     Zarathushtra  seeks  means,  therefore, 

"  Ys.  32.  13.  "  Ys.  33.  4;  47.  5-  "  Ys.  30.  5. 

"Ys.  32.  3-  "Ys.  30.  II.  "Ys.  45.  I. 


EVIL  51 

to  drive  him  out.^°  Zarathushtra  exhorts  his  audience  to  listen 
attentively  to  his  inspired  teachings,  so  that  the  teacher  of  evil 
faith  may  not  thereafter  injure  them.^^  The  prophet  comes  as 
the  lord  between  the  parties  of  the  righteous  and  the  wicked 
and  those  whose  good  and  evil  deeds  balance.^^  He  preaches  to 
those  who,  being  led  astray  by  the  evil  advice  of  Druj,  smite  the 
world  of  righteousness.^^  The  wicked  are  far  from  the  good- 
will of  Ahura  Mazda;  their  sinful  deeds  make  them  companions 
of  Evil  Mind.^*  They  strive  to  estrange  the  righteous  from  the 
Best  Mind,-^  and  from  the  best  deeds.-*^  They  strive  to  reduce 
all  others  to  their  own  class.  They  bring  distress  and  death  to 
the  house,  village,  town,  and  country,  through  their  wicked 
spells.^^     He  who  harasses  the  prophet  is  the  child  of  Druj.^* 

Druj's  followers  are  to  be  requited  with  evil  in  this  world. 
In  his  crusade  against  the  Kingdom  of  Druj,  Zoroaster  is  un- 
sparing and  even  unforgiving.  We  do  not  see,  in  the  words 
handed  down  from  his  lips,  the  gentler  side  of  virtue,  of  return- 
ing good  for  evil.  Here  we  have  the  ethics  of  retaliation.  Once 
the  antithesis  between  the  Kingdoms  of  Righteousness  and 
Wickedness  is  sharply  defined,  the  latter  is  to  be  relentlessly 
opposed.  The  two  parties  are  on  the  warpath,  and  strict  dis- 
cipline demands  that  the  righteous  man  will  on  no  account 
wink  at  or  palliate  wickedness,  and  let  the  evildoer  go  free  with- 
out retribution.  Wrong  is  to  be  handled  simply  as  wrong,  and 
the  man  who  does  wrong  is  to  be  met  with  his  own  weapons. 
Evil  is  to  be  requited  by  evil  and  not  by  goodness.  Indiffer- 
ence and  leniency  threaten  only  to  further  the  domain  of  Wicked- 
ness.    Consequently  evil  is  to  be  relentlessly  put  down. 

Zarathushtra  is  the  friend  of  the  righteous,  but  a  veritable 
foe  to  the  wicked.^^  The  wicked  lords  of  the  land  vehemently 
oppose  his  work ;  ^^  it  is  they  who  hinder  the  righteous  in  the 
pursuit  of  goodness.  He  who  hurls  these  miscreants  down  from 
power  clears  the  way  for  the  good  teachings.^^  Succouring  the 
wicked  is  tantamount  to  practising  wickedness.  It  is  expressly 
said  that  the  one  who  is  good  to  the  wicked  is  himself  wicked.^^ 
Those  who  with  their  words,  thoughts,  and  deeds  bring  punish- 

"Ys.  44.  13.  "Ys.  32.  II  '"Ys.  43.  8. 

"  Ys.  45.  I.  '"  Ys.  32.  12.  "  Ys.  46.  I. 

"  Ys.  31.  2;  33.  I.            "  Ys.  31.  18.  "  Ys.  46.  4. 

"  Ys.  31.  I.  ''  Ys.  51.  10.  "'  Ys.  46.  6. 
"  Ys.  47.  5. 


52  EVIL 

ment  to  the  wicked  fulfil  the  desire  of  Mazda.^^  No  one,  there- 
fore, should  be  the  cause  of  rejoicing  to  the  wicked.^*  Every 
one,  on  the  contrary,  should  always  practise  goodness  towards 
the  righteous,  but  deal  out  ill  to  the  wicked.^^  The  wicked  is 
not  to  be  given  chief tainship.^^ 

Druj's' disciples  fare  no  better  in  the  next  world.  Ahura 
Mazda  reckons  the  followers  of  Druj  as  wicked,  and  therefore 
retribution  and  misery  await  their  souls."  Ahura  Mazda  gives 
happiness  and  joy  hereafter  to  the  righteous,  but  on  the  wicked 
he  inflicts  punishment  and  pain.^«  The  wicked,  according  to  the 
teachings  of  the  Gathas,  are  led  by  their  conscience  through  their 
own  deeds  to  the  abode  of  darkness.^^  One  of  the  names  of  the 
inferno  is  drujo  demana,  '  Abode  of  Druj.'  Thither  rush  the 
wilfully  blind  and  deaf,"  thither  go  to  perdition  the  crew  of 
the  wicked." 

Final  defeat  of  Druj.  The  logical  sequence  to  the  war  be- 
tween the  powers  of  righteousness  and  wickedness  in  these 
sharply  defined  poles  of  existence  is  the  demanded  ultimate  vic- 
tory of  righteousness  over  wickedness.  That  is  the  goal  towards 
which  the  world  of  humanity  moves.  When  punishment  will 
come  to  the  wicked  and  the  divine  kingdom  descend  upon  earth, 
Druj  will  fall  forever  into  the  hands  of  Asha.*^  Hence  Zara- 
thushtra  abjures  Druj,*^  and  prays  for  power  that  he  and  his 
followers  may  be  able  to  smite  Druj.^'^  He  asks  Ahura  Mazda 
how  it  will  be  possible  to  deliver  over  Druj  into  the  hands  of 
Asha,^^  and  it  will  eventually  come  to  pass  that  the  righteous 
will  rout  the  wicked."  The  tone  of  his  divine  inquiry  implies 
the  answer  that  when  humanity  unanimously  adheres  to  Right- 
eousness, Wickedness  will  ultimately  perish.*^ 

Aeshma 

The  demon  of  Wrath.  The  foe  of  Sraosha,  who  is  above 
all  the  genius  of  obedience  and  revelation,  is  Aeshma,  or  '  Wrath.' 
When  Geush  Urvan,  or  the  spirit  of  animal  life,  or  of  the  uni- 
verse, or  however  we  may  explain  the  name  of  the  celestial  entity 
referred  to  above,  complains  of  the  disturbance  and  disorder, 


ss 

S4 

SE 
38 
ST 


Ys.  Z3-  2.  ""  Ys.  31.  14,  IS ;  51-  8,  g.  "  Ys.  49-  3- 

Ys.  43.  15.  "Ys.  31.  20.  ^  ^'- ^'^  4- 

Ys.  47.  4.  "Ys.  46.  11;  51.  14.  Ys.  44.  14- 

Ys.  49.  9.  "  Ys.  49.  II.  ^  Ys.  48.  2. 

Ys.  43.  4 ;  45.  7.  "  Ys.  30.  8.                         _  "  Ys.  30.  10. 


EVIL  S3 

chaos  and  anarchy  prevailing  on  the  earth,  it  speaks  of  Aeshma 
as  the  prime  originator  of  these  calamities.*^  The  Fashioner  of 
the  Universe,  thereupon,  consults  Asha  to  find  out  a  chieftain 
who  would  ultimately  banish  Aeshma  from  the  creation.*' 
Furthermore  in  this  connection,  when  the  twain  spirits  of  good 
and  evil  first  met  together  at  the  beginning  of  the  creation,  the 
demons  embraced  evil  and  rushed  to  the  standard  of  Aeshma  in 
order  to  bring  destruction  to  the  life  of  man.^*'  Those  who  with 
firmness  control  and  repress  this  arch-fiend  are  the  saviours.^^ 
Zarathushtra  says  that  the  faithful  follower  of  the  good,  who 
is  striving  to  hold  and  make  his  own  the  Good  Mind  through 
righteousness,  should  in  the  first  place  put  down  Aeshma,  the 
fiend  of  fury.^^ 

"  Ys.  29.  I.  '"  Ys.  30.  6.  "  Ys.  48.  7. 

"  Ys.  29.  2.  "  Ys.  48.  12. 


CHAPTER  VII 
LIFE  AFTER  DEATH 

The  corporeal  and  the  spiritual  worlds.  The  Gathas  gen- 
erally speak  of  two  different  worlds,  this  one  and  the  next. 
The  present,  or  the  earthly  world,  is  called  astvant,  '  corporeal,' 
and  the  other,  or  heavenly  world,  is  called  manahya,  '  spiritual.'  ^ 
The  soul  cannot  work  unless  invested  with  a  bodily  vehicle. 
Body  and  soul  are  the  two  main  constituents  in  the  formation 
of  man.  These  two  have  their  respective  organs  and  other 
spiritual  and  material  essentials.  So  long  as  these  work  in 
unison,  man  lives,  and  lives  for  the  best,  in  this  world.  Death 
brings  the  dissolution  of  these  diverse  elements.  The  soul  exists 
for  the  short  span  of  its  life  on  earth  in  the  tenement  of  the 
body.  When  the  material  frame  crumbles  into  dust  it  flees 
heavenward.  The  bodily  death  does  not  mean  the  death  of  the 
soul,  for  that  is  immortal.  Man  should  therefore  bethink  himself 
to  prepare  for  the  journey  to  the  next  world. 

The  anomalies  of  earthly  life  and  their  final  adjustment 
in  heaven.  The  unequal  distribution  of  earthly  possessions 
among  mankind,  the  unequal  opportunities  held  out  to  man, 
the  undeserved  sufferings  of  the  righteous,  the  unmerited  success 
of  the  wicked,  and  various  other  anomalies  of  life  have  led  the 
sages  from  time  past  to  postulate  a  place  where  wrongs  shall  be 
ultimately  adjusted,  outraged  righteousness  expiated,  and  unde- 
tected wickedness  punished.  The  order  of  the  present  world  is  far 
from  perfection ;  the  innocent  often  suffer,  while  the  guilty  escape 
with  impunity;  the  virtuous  poor  man  pines  under  grinding 
poverty,  while  the  vicious  rich  man  prospers.  The  doctrine  of  a 
future  life  where  justice  will  be  administered  with  exactitude 
in  accordance  with  the  divine  ordinance,  where  grievances  of  this 
world  will  be  redressed,  and  where  every  injustice,  borne  pa- 
tiently, will  be  rectified,  gives  mental  tranquillity  and  spiritual 

^  Ys.  28.  2 ;  43.  3. 
54 


LIFE  AFTER  DEATH  55 

calm  to  the  afflicted.  A  vista  of  hope,  according  to  Zarathushtra's 
teachings,  thus  opens  before  those  who  are  roughly  handled  by 
this  world.  This  hope  brings  peace  that  the  world  has  not 
hitherto  given  them.  It  enables  them  manfully  to  endure  pain 
and  privation,  suffering  and  sorrow,  in  the  pious  hope  that  a 
higher  life  awaits  them  in  which  they  will  receive  their  due. 
This  hope  assures  man  the  continuation  of  what  little  happiness 
he  has  had  in  this  world  and  the  cessation  of  what  great  misery 
he  suffered  on  earth.  It  gives  meaning  to  the  life  of  the  individ- 
ual, and  inculcates  a  robust  faith  in  the  goodness  of  God.  Man 
thus  learns  that  he  is  not  the  sport  of  some  evil-designing  spirit 
who  has  carelessly  thrown  him  on  this  world,  resourceless  and 
helpless.  When  in  spite  of  his  own  honest  work  and  hard  labour 
he  finds  himself  hopelessly  lost  in  the  feverish  struggle  for  ex- 
istence, he  does  not  complain  that  some  unjust  and  partial  Maker 
has  made  him  of  clay  inferior  to  that  of  his  intensely  selfish 
competitors,  and  given  to  him  lesser  opportunities  for  success 
than  to  his  rivals  in  the  race  of  life.  The  cheerful  idea  dawns 
upon  him  that  the  gloomy  and  dark  night  of  anguish  of  his  broken 
heart  and  troubled  spirit  will  be  followed  by  an  eternal  morn 
which  will  dispel  all  darkness  and  shed  light  on  his  path.  He 
learns  that  the  sufferings  and  sorrow  in  this  world  will  lead  to 
happiness  and  joy  in  the  next. 

Reward  for  the  good  and  retribution  for  the  evil.  This 
doctrine  forms  the  chief  part  of  the  ethical  teachings  of  the 
Gathas.-  All  precepts  in  the  sacred  stanzas  are  generally  ac- 
companied by  a  repeated  mention  of  reward  or  retribution  in 
this  or  the  next  world.  To  be  entirely  disinterested  in  the 
acting  of  righteousness,  or  to  follow  virtue  for  virtue's  sake,  is 
a  saintly  prerogative.  But  the  world  is  not  made  up  of  saints. 
The  saint  is  the  acme  in  the  moral  sphere,  as  is  the  intellectual 
genius  in  the  realm  of  reason.  Both  form  the  climaxes  in  the 
two  distinct  spheres  of  human  activity.  The  world  begets  tens 
of  millions  of  average  men,  in  contrast  to  the  few  isolated  types 
of  master-spirits  who  inspire  the  world  with  their  boundless 
devotion  or  enlighten  it  by  their  profound  intellect.  These  give 
a  new  life  and  impetus  to  the  moral  and  intellectual  activities  of 
mankind.  The  saintly  type  of  virtue  is  the  goal  which  frail 
humanity  feebly  attempts  to  reach.  Humanity,  as  a  whole,  is 
'  Ys.  30.  10,  11;  31.  14,  20;  45-  7;  SI.  6,  8,  9. 


56  LIFE  AFTER  DEATH 

evolving  towards  this  ideal  type  of  virtue,  but  meanwhile — and 
let  this  be  emphasized  till  the  striven-for  goal  is  reached — it 
needs  some  sort  of  incentive  to  good  conduct  in  the  lives  of  its 
masses.  Hence  the  prime  motive  of  their  embracing  righteous- 
ness is  the  hope  of  future  reward,  and  that  of  shunning  wicked- 
ness is  the  fear  of  retribution. 

It  is  no  wonder,  then,  if  we  find  an  elaborately  worked  out 
system  of  rewards  and  retributions  in  the  ethical  code  of  the 
sacred  Hymns.  The  faithful  generally  pray,  among  other  boons, 
for  endurance,  durability,  riches,  and  happiness  in  this  world, 
and  for  rewards,  weal,  and  immortality  in  the  world  to  come. 
Zarathushtra  implores  Ahura  Mazda  to  grant  him  long  life  in 
his  divine  kingdom,^  and  inquires  what  will  bring  happiness  to 
his  soul.*  In  the  same  manner,  the  devout  lift  up  their  praises 
of  the  Lord  to  the  throne  of  the  Almighty.^  Ahura  Mazda  is  the 
giver  of  reward  to  the  righteous  as  well  as  of  punishment  to  the 
wicked.^    He  is  entreated  to  grant  the  riches  of  both  the  worlds. '^ 

The  soul  reaps  as  it  has  sown.  The  soul  is  the  master  of 
the  body  and  is  responsible  for  the  good  or  evil  deeds  it  has 
done  in  this  life.  Man  carves  his  destiny  for  the  next  world 
by  his  thoughts,  words,  and  deeds  in  this  life,  and  good  or  evil 
destiny  awaits  the  soul  in  the  next,  or  the  spiritual  world,  which 
is  essentially  the  place  of  reward  and  retribution.  The  life  in 
this  world  is  incomplete  without  its  prolongation  in  the  heavenly 
world,  for  it  is  only  a  life  of  probation,  and  the  harvest  of  the 
good  or  evil  seeds  sown  here  is  to  be  reaped  hereafter  by  the 
soul  in  the  world  of  the  spirit.  Whether  the  soul,  on  embarking 
to  the  next  world,  will  be  greeted  by  the  righteous  or  seized 
by  the  wicked,  depends  entirely  upon  the  sort  of  life  it  has  led  in 
this  world.  If  it  wins  beatitude,  it  is  on  its  own  merits;  if  it 
loses  this,  it  is  equally  through  its  own  fault.  If  it  ascends  to 
heaven,  it  is  owing  to  its  righteous  life  in  this  world;  if  it  sinks 
into  hell,  it  is  due  to  its  wicked  life  here. 

The  soul  is  created  pure  and  innocent.  The  lost  soul  that 
traverses  the  regions  of  inferno  after  death  was  at  the  first 
moment  of  its  original  entrance  into  the  bodily  world  as  pure  and 
perfect  as  the  soul  of  its  neighbour  now  entering  paradise.  In  the 
spiritual  world  class  distinctions  are  unknown.     There  are  no 

"  Ys.  43.  13.  •  Ys.  45.  8.  '  Ys.  28.  2. 

*  Ys.  44-  8.  •  Ys.  43.  4. 


LIFE  AFTER  DEATH  •  57 

white  or  black,  red  or  yellow,  high  or  low,  touchable  or  untouch- 
able souls,  as  man  has  most  selfishly  branded  his  brethren  from 
the  difference  of  the  colours  of  their  skin  or  their  low  rank  in 
society.  The  noblest  of  souls  may  dwell  in  the  tenement  covered 
with  the  darkest  skin ;  the  vilest  of  souls  may  take  the  body  with 
the  whitest  skin  for  its  vestment;  the  loveliest  of  spirits  may  be 
found  in  the  body  with  the  ugliest  complexion,  and  the  foulest 
of  souls  may  lurk  in  the  fairest  body. 

The  Bridge  of  Judgment.  In  connection  with  the  future 
judgment  we  are  given  in  figurative  language  by  Zarathushtra 
the  image  of  a  bridge,  called  Chinvat,  literally  '  of  the  dividing 
one,'  that  connects  this  world  with  the  unseen  world,  and  serves 
as  a  medium  to  cross  the  deep  chasm  that  separates  the  two.  The 
reckoning  of  the  good  or  evil  deeds  of  the  souls  takes  place  after 
death,^  and  judgment  is  passed  upon  them  before  they  can  cross 
the  Bridge.  The  souls  fare  here  as  is  their  due.  The  righteous 
souls  come  to  this  place  in  pious  expectation  of  the  reward  that 
awaits  them.  Zarathushtra  helps  those  righteous  souls  to  cross 
the  Bridge  who  have  devoutly  practised  his  religion.^  But  the 
wicked  souls,  who  have  estranged  themselves  from  the  Path  of 
Righteousness  by  their  own  evil  thoughts,  words,  and  deeds, 
stand  trembling  at  this  judgment  span."  Writhing  with  the 
pangs  of  their  conscience  and  crying  words  of  woe,  they  are  now 
led  by  their  own  conscience  to  perdition.^^ 

Heaven 

Abode  of  the  righteous  after  death.  The  sharp  antithesis 
that  existed  between  the  righteous  and  the  wicked  in  the  ma- 
terial world  finds  its  counterpart  in  the  spiritual  world.  The 
righteous  in  this  world  formed  ashahya  gaetha,  '  World  of 
Righteousness/  as  against  the  dregvants  who  belonged  to  the 
World  of  Wickedness.  The  place  reserved  for  the  pious  souls 
that  approach  heaven  is  called  garo  demdna,  '  Abode  of  Song.' 
Here  they  are  surrounded  by  choirs  of  celestial  beings.  In  one 
instance  this  region  of  felicity  and  bliss  is  called  vangheush 
demana  manangho,  '  Abode  of  Good  Mind.'  ^^  Ahura  Mazda 
with  his  heavenly  host,  and  the  souls  of  the  righteous  ones,  live 
here. 

«  Ys.  31.  14.  "Ys.  51.  13-  "Ys.  32.  15- 

•Ys.  46.  10.  "Ys.  31.  20;  46.  II. 


58  LIFE  AFTER  DEATH 

The  nature  of  reward  in  heaven.  The  blessed  ones  now 
enter  into  felicity.  To  the  pious  souls  Ahura  Mazda  gives  the 
good  reward  which  their  goodness  has  earned."  The  fruition  of 
paradise  belongs  to  them.  Those  who  have  helped  the  prophet  in 
his  great  work  are  rewarded  in  the  spiritual  world.^*  There  the 
righteous  enjoy  felicity  in  immortality.^^  The  good  leave  a  good 
name  and  fame  behind  them  on  earth,  and  attain  reward  in  the 
abode  of  Ahura  Mazda,  Vohu  Manah,  and  Asha.^^  The  weal 
of  the  blessed  ones  in  heaven  knows  not  any  woe ;  it  is  the  last- 
ing happiness  which  is  never  followed  by  misery,  and  the  bliss 
is  without  alloy,  for  the  riches  of  Vohu  Manah  are  everlasting.^^ 
Earthly  happiness  is  fleeting,  it  may  be  supplanted  by  misery  at 
the  very  moment  that  man  thinks  himself  most  secure  in  its 
enjoyment.  The  joy  of  life  may  at  any  moment  be  eclipsed  by  a 
passing  cloud  of  sorrow ;  but  the  heavenly  bliss  is  abiding,  know- 
ing no  end,  and  having  no  pain  in  its  train.  It  is  the  highest 
blessing  of  life,  says  Zarathushtra,  which  Mazda  will  give  to  all 
those  that  are  the  faithful  followers  of  his  excellent  religion." 

Intermediary  Place  of  Rewards 

Between  heaven  and  hell.  Bartholomae  first  discovered 
that  Ys.  33.  I  foreshadowed  the  doctrine  of  an  intermediary 
place  between  heaven  and  hell  for  those  souls  whose  good  and 
evil  deeds  exactly  balance,  which  forms  so  prominent  a  part  as 
the  doctrine  of  Hamistagan  in  the  eschatological  ideas  of  the 
later  Pahlavi  period."  The  problem  as  to  the  interpretation  of 
this  Gathic  passage,  however,  has  remained  a  moot  question, 
though  the  growing  tendency  on  the  part  of  the  scholars  is 
towards  the  acceptance  of  Bartholomae's  view.  Still  another 
stanza,  Ys.  48.  4,  has  recently  been  instanced  as  containing  the 
germ  of  the  Hamistagan  doctrine.^^ 

We  learn  from  the  Pahlavi  works  that  an  intermediary  place, 
situated  between  earth  and  the  star-region,  is  reserved  for  the 
souls  in  whose  case  the  records  of  what  may  be  called  the  Book 
of  Life  show  that  their  good  deeds  are  on  a  par  with  their 
evil    deeds.     The    strict    logic    of    the   doctrine   of   Zoroastrian 

Ys.  30. 11;  43. 5.  ^^Ys.  28.  8. 

Ys.  46.  19.  "  Ys.  53.  I. 

Ys.  45.  7.  "  ZDMG.  35. 157,  158 ;  cf.  also  Roth,  ib.  37.  223-229. 

Ys.  30.  10.  "  Cf.  Geldner,  Aus  dem  Avesta  in  KZ.  30.  530. 


13 
14 


LIFE  AFTER  DEATH  59 

€schatology  and  the  symmetry  of  the  entire  system  demand  a 
place  where  the  souls  that  cannot  ascend  to  heaven  because  of 
the  heaviness  of  their  sins,  and  yet  are  not  so  weighed  down 
by  sin  as  to  descend  into  hell,  can  find  their  resting-place  till 
the  final  judgment.  The  Avestan  and  Pahlavi  texts  record  in 
full  detail  this  eschatological  doctrine,  while  the  Gathas  appear 
to  recognize  it  either  in  spirit  or  in  the  abstract,  so  that  we  may 
be  justified  in  concluding  that  the  concept  of  the  intermediate 
place  was  embodied  in  the  teachings  of  Zarathushtra  from  the 
beginning. 

Hell 

The  wicked  are  consigned  to  perdition.  In  contradistinction 
to  the  Best  Existence,  the  abode  of  sinners  after  death  is  achishta 
ahu,  '  Worst  Existence.'  -^  The  region  of  hell  is  called  drujo 
demana,  '  Abode  of  Wickedness,'  ^^  or  achishtahyd  demdna 
manangho,  '  Abode  of  the  Worst  Mind.'  ^^  Darkness  is  the  char- 
acteristic trait  of  the  inferno.-* 

The  nature  of  retribution  in  hell.  The  Gathic  texts  casually 
mention  that  torment  and  woe,  punishment  and  sorrow,  fall  to 
the  lot  of  the  wicked  in  hell,-^  and  that  the  demons  greet  the  lost 
souls  with  foul  food.-®  This  figurative  expression  and  others 
of  like  nature  are  taken  literally  in  the  later  periods,  when  hell 
is  materialized  and  the  concept  of  physical  torture  is  symmet- 
rically worked  out.  The  soul  writhes  in  agony  owing  to  the  con- 
sciousness of  its  alienation  from  Ahura  Mazda.  Its  own  con- 
science condemns  it  unreservedly.-'^ 

Duration  of  punishment  in  hell.  The  Gathas  speak  of  the 
punishment  as  lasting  for  a  long  period.^^  The  idea  of  eternal 
damnation,  that  is,  confinement  in  hell  until  the  day  of  Renova- 
tion, which  is  markedly  manifest  in  the  later  works,  exists  in 
embryo  in  the  Gathas.  A  passage  expressly  speaks  of  the 
misery  of  the  wicked  souls  as  lasting  for  all  time.-" 


Ys.  30.  4. 

Ys.  46.  II;  49.  11;  51.  14. 

Ys.  32.  13. 

Ys.  31.  20. 

Ys.  30.  8,  11;  31.  14,  20;  43.  5;  44.  19;  45.  7;  49-  4;  51-  8,  9;  53.  7. 

Ys.  31.  20;  49.  II. 


21 

23 
29 
24 
2S 
28 

"  Ys.  31.  20. 

"  Ys.  30.  11;  31.  20. 

as 


Ys.  46.   II. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
THE  FINAL  DISPENSATION 

The  end  of  the  world.  The  Gathas  speak  of  a  period  when 
the  process  of  creation  will  stop,  the  evolution  of  the  universe 
will  reach  its  destined  goal,  as  the  cycle  of  the  world  will  then 
be  completed  and  creation  and  life  will  end.^  Ahura  Mazda  will 
come  at  that  time  with  his  Holy  Spirit,  and  with  Khshathra  and 
Vohu  Manah,  to  accomplish  this  great  work,^  The  world-process 
will  then  come  to  its  final  consummation  as  ordained  by  him  at 
the  beginning  of  creation. 

The  saviour  prophets.  The  later  scriptures  speak  of  the 
different  saviours  that  will  appear  in  the  world  at  various 
epochs  to  reform  it,  the  last  and  the  greatest  of  such  saviours 
being  Soshyos,  or,  to  use  the  Gathic  word,  Saoshyant.  The 
term  saoshyant  in  both  the  singular  and  plural  forms  occurs 
in  the  Gathas.  Here,  however,  the  word  is  used,  not  as  the  name 
of  any  particular  individual,  but  as  a  generic  term,  designating 
a  group  of  saintly  workers.  It  is  in  the  Younger  Avestan  period 
that  we  first  become  acquainted  with  a  person  bearing  this  name. 
Those  who  by  their  good  deeds  work  for  the  commandment  of 
Ahura  Mazda  through  Good  Mind  and  Righteousness  are  called 
the  saviour  prophets.^  Ahura  Mazda  is  asked  regarding  the 
period  when  the  wisdom  of  the  saviours  will  dawn  upon  the  world 
through  their  efficacious  precepts.*  The  saviour  prophet  is  the 
friend,  helper,  and  father  of  those  who  hate  the  demons.^  To 
be  as  worthy  as  these  saviours  who  bring  about  the  furtherance 
of  the  world,  is  the  devout  prayer  of  the  faithful.^ 

Universal  judgment.  All  human  souls  will  be  subjected  to 
a  collective  judgment  before  the  ultimate  renovation  of  the 
world.  The  souls  will  have  to  undergo  the  great  ordeal  by 
fire  and   molten   metal,    to   which   reference  has   already   been 


^  Ys.  43.  5 ;  51-  6. 

"  Ys.  48.  12. 

'  Ys.  45.  II. 

»Ys.  43.  6. 

*  Ys.  46.  3. 

°  Ys.  30.  9. 

60 


■      THE  FINAL  DISPENSATION  6i 

made."^  At  the  time  of  the  final  Dispensation  Ahura 
Mazda  will  judge  the  souls  of  the  righteous  and  the  wicked 
by  the  test  of  his  blazing  fire.®  The  powerful  fire  will  be  a 
manifest  help  unto  the  holy,  but  harmful  unto  the  wicked.® 
Asha  and  Armaiti  will  help  Ahura  Mazda  at  this  final  judg- 
ment.^" Mazda  knows  best  how  to  mark  out  the  lost  sinners  at  the 
final  ordeal  of  the  molten  metal.^^  This  tribulation  will  reclaim 
the  sinners.^^ 

Righteousness  triumphs  over  wickedness.  The  world  of 
humanity  will  at  last  arrive  at  the  stage  when  Druj,  or  Wicked- 
ness, will  come  into  the  hands  of  Asha,  or  Righteousness.  This 
ideal  aim  and  end  has  been  the  final  goal  laid  out  in  the  Gathas. 
Zarathushtra  prays  over  and  over  again  for  the  period  when 
Righteousness  will  smite  Wickedness.  Every  gain  to  the  King- 
dom' of  Righteousness  is  a  loss  to  the  Kingdom  of  Wickedness, 
and  when  there  is  no  Wickedness  left.  Righteousness  will  reign 
supreme.  When  the  law  of  Wickedness  is  thus  annihilated,  the 
divine  law  of  Righteousness  will  pervade  the  entire  world.  Even 
the  wicked  souls  who  had  revolted  from  Mazda  in  the  corporeal 
world  and  gone  over  to  the  Evil  Spirit  will  after  the  retribution 
come  over  to  Mazda  and  acknowledge  his  sovereignty.  As  the 
great  shepherd,  Ahura  Mazda  will  bring  back  into  the  fold  of 
righteousness  all  those  persons  who,  led  astray  by  the  arch- 
tempter,  had  left  his  flock. 

The  later  texts  give  us  a  systematic  account  of  the  final 
struggle  between  the  good  and  the  evil  powers,  and  relate  in 
detail  how  every  one  of  the  heavenly  beings  will  smite  his  own 
particular  opponent  evil  spirit.  As  we  have  already  seen,  the 
Gathas  speak  of  the  victory  of  Asha,  or  Righteousness,  and  the 
defeat  of  Druj,  Wickedness.  The  fate  of  Angra  Mainyu,  the 
father  of  evil,  is  not  mentioned;  but  we  can  infer  that  when 
once  the  law  of  Wickedness  perishes,  its  originator  must  be 
impotent;  in  other  words,  the  final  defeat  of  Druj  signifies  also 
the  defeat  of  the  arch-Druj  Angra  Mainyu. 

The  Kingdom  of  Righteousness:  man's  share  in  its 
inauguration.  Each  age  has  its  ideals,  religious  and  social ;  and 
they  vary  in  accordance  with  the  high  or  low  grades  of  civilization 
of  its  peoples.    The  establishment  of  the  Kingdom  of  Righteous- 

'Ys.  51.  9-  'Ys.  34-  4-  '' Ys.  32.  7 

«  Ys.  31-  3,  19;  43-  4;  47-  6.  "  Ys.  47-  6.  ''  Ys.  47-  6. 


62  THE  FINAL  DISPENSATION 

ness  is  the  one  universal  ideal,  which  knows  no  change.  Ahura 
Mazda  will  bring  about  the  renovation  of  the  world  in  accord- 
ance with  his  divine  will.^^  The  whole  universe  moves  towards 
the  realization  of  this  state  of  perfection,  and  humanity  evolves 
towards  this  ideal.  The  righteous  at  all  times  help  to  bring  this 
great  event  nearer  by  their  deeds,  even  though  the  onward  march 
may  be  beset  with  obstacles,  and  progress  at  times  may  be  re- 
tarded, yet  it  can  never  be  wholly  arrested.  Occasionally  it  may 
seem  to  swing  back,  but  on  the  whole  its  move  is  onward  along 
the  path.  If  progress  and  evolution  seem  to  be  slow,  the 
faithful  need  not  despair.  In  the  course  of  eternity  Ahura 
Mazda  has  ample  time  to  finish  the  work  with  the  co-operation 
of  the  children  of  men.  Human  beings  that  form  a  society  at  a 
given  period  in  the  endless  chain  of  Boundless  Time  have  to 
give  their  respective  share  in  the  furthering  of  this  great  work. 
If  society  suffers  for  the  faults  of  its  units,  it  is  because  the 
individuals  are  human ;  but  even  these  faults  and  these  suffer- 
ings turn  out  to  be  incentives  for  the  sure  and  steady  work  of 
advancement.  Progress  is  the  Zoroastrian  watchword.  ]\Ian's 
birth  is  an  ascent  to  the  state  of  final  perfection.  Each  in- 
dividual has  to  join  hands  with  the  rest  of  his  fellows  in  this 
great  and  noble  undertaking;  he  must  work  to  the  extent  of 
his  powers  and  lend  his  aid,  no  matter  how  insignificant,  to  the 
attainment  of  that  ideal  end.  ]\Ian  need  not  feel  appalled  by 
the  narrowness  of  the  sphere  in  which  he  can  labour,  nor  must 
he  be  staggered  at  the  vastness  of  the  work  to  be  done.  The 
individual  life  should  add  something  to  the  sum  total  of  the  life 
of  humanity.  Everyone  has  to  consecrate  his  life  to  the  good 
of  humanity.  It  is  a  state  in  which  everyone  feels  sympathy 
for  his  neighbour  and  helps  everyone  else.  This  is  the  common 
aim  that  knits  together  all  men  that  have  visited  this  earth  since 
creation  began,  and  must  equally  unite  for  all  time  those  that 
will  inhabit  it  up  to  the  end  of  existence.  The  eternal  con- 
flict aims  at  the  universal.  Individuals  in  all  ages  have  to  work 
to  accomplish  this  great  end.  Each  generation  profits  by  the 
work  done  in  the  past,  makes  some  infinitesimal  advance  and 
adds  its  own  share  to  the  inherited  legacy,  thus  handing  it  down 
to  posterity  in  a  better  and  a  higher  condition  than  that  in  which 
it  received  this  inheritance.     At  last,  by  the  constant  efforts  of 

"  Ys.  34.  IS. 


THE  FINAL  DISPENSATION  63 

the  ages  and  the  accumulated  work  of  humanity,  the  desired 
object  will  be  secured.  Every  effort  made  in  this  direction  is 
a  step  upward  gained  on  the  ladder  leading  to  the  ultimate  goal. 
The  great  world  drama  will  then  be  over,  the  final  curtain 
will  fall  on  the  tragic  element  in  creation;  the  ultimate  triumph 
of  good  over  evil  will  be  secured,  the  divine  Kingdom  of 
Righteousness  will  be  established,  and  all  this  will  come  to  pass 
through  the  work  of  man,  the  chief  actor  and  hero  of  the  human 
play,  who  co-operates  and  participates  in  this  great  work  with 
his  Heavenly  Father,  Man  will  then  enter  into  the  everlasting 
joy  of  Ahura  Mazda.  Such  is  the  great  message  of  Hope  that 
the  prophet  of  Iran  brings  to  the  world  of  humanity  from 
Ahura  Mazda. 


THE   AVESTAN    PERIOD 

FROM    ABOUT    B.    C.    800    TO   ABOUT   A.    D.    200 

AT   THE    LATEST 


CHAPTER  IX 
THE  AVESTAN  PEOPLE 

The  races  that  formed  the  Zoroastrian  fold.  The  Bactrians, 
the  Medes,  and  the  Persians  successively  rose  to  poHtical  inde- 
pendence in  Ancient  Iran.  The  Bactrians  of  the  Northeast,  the 
Medians  of  the  Northwest,  and  the  Persians  of  the  Southwest, 
were  poHtically  welded  into  one  Persian  nation,  under  the 
Achaemenian  empire,  and  religiously  they  were  from  early  times 
knit  into  one  community  by  the  creed  of  Zoroaster.  This  process 
of  blending  these  different  peoples  into  one  homogeneous  nation 
was  completed  by  the  time  of  the  conquest  of  Persia  by  Alexander 
the  Great, 

Athravans,  the  Zoroastrian  priesthood  of  Eastern  Iran. 
The  recognized  priest  of  the  Avestan  texts  is  the  dthravan,  the 
fire-priest  of  the  Indo-Iranian  period.  Nature  hails  Zarathushtra 
at  his  birth  as  an  athravan.^  He  is  the  very  first  and  foremost 
of  the  athravans. 2  Even  Ahura  Mazda  himself  takes  this  term 
to  define  one  of  his  own  innumerable  names. ^  Like  their  Vedic 
brethren,  the  Avestan  people  divided  their  society  into  different 
professional  groups ;  and  the  athravans  formed  the  first  of  them. 
Fire  was  their  special  charge,  and  it  was  their  priestly  duty  to  tend 
the  sacred  flame  in  the  shrines,  and  also  to  go  abroad  preaching 
the  religion  of  Mazda.*  It  seems,  however,  to  have  been  left 
to  a  different  wing  of  the  sacerdotal  community  to  plant  the 
banner  of  Zoroastrianism  in  the  western  part  of  Iran,  which  was 
destined  to  become  the  centre  of  a  great  civilization  and  the 
seat  of  an  empire  far  greater  in  political  importance  than  that 
which  obtained  among  the  Eastern  Iranians. 

Not  long  after  the  death  of  Vishtaspa,  the  royal  patron  of 
Zarathushtra,  the  Kingly  Glory  left  the  eastern  line  of  the  Iranian 
Kings  and  flew  to  the  west.  With  the  shifting  of  the  political 
sphere  of  influence,  the  centre  of  religious  authority  gravitated 
towards  the  west.     Ragha,  hereafter,  became  the  pontifical  seat 

'  Yt.  13.  94-  '  Yt.  I.  12. 

'  Yt.  13.  88,  89.  *  Ys.  42.  6. 

(>7 


68  THE  AVESTAN  PEOPLE 

of  the  descendants  of  the  prophet.  The  temporal  and  spiritual 
power  here  was  vested  in  the  chief  pontiff  of  the  Zoroastrian 
world.®  Religious  influence  radiated  from  this  ecclesiastical 
centre,  and  the  Magian  neighbours  were  possibly  the  first  to 
imbibe  the  new  ideas  and  gradually  to  spread  them  among  the 
Medes  and  later  among  the  Persians. 

Magi,  the  Zoroastrian  priesthood  of  Western  Iran.  The 
Medes  had  founded  a  vast  empire  on  the  ruins  of  Assyria  in 
the  seventh  century  b.c.  The  Magi  formed  one  of  the  six 
tribes  of  the  Medes,^  and  constituted  their  sacerdotal  class.  The 
Median  empire  was  short-lived.  Cyrus  overthrew  Astyages,  the 
last  Median  king,  in  B.C.  550,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
great  Achaemenian  empire.  The  Persians  thus  conquered  the 
earthly  possessions  of  the  Medes  and  the  Magi,  their  priests ; 
but  they  were  in  turn  conquered  by  the  latter  in  spirit.  The 
Magian  victory  in  the  spiritual  domain  more  than  made  amends 
for  the  loss  of  their  temporal  power.  The  racial  jealousy  and 
antagonism  between  the  conquerors  and  the  subdued  races,  how- 
ever, continued  for  a  considerable  time,  owing  to  the  Median 
attempts  to  regain  their  ascendency.  When  Cambyses  heard 
of  the  Magian  priest  Gaumata's  revolt  to  overthrow  the  Persian 
empire,  he  exhorted  the  people  never  to  let  their  kingdom  fall 
into  the  hands  of  the  Medes  and  the  Magi.'  The  anniversary 
of  the  day  of  the  Magian  usurper's  fall,  known  as  Magophonia, 
was  observed  by  the  Persians  as  a  great  festival,  and  Herodotus 
informs  us  that  the  Magi  kept  within  their  houses  on  that  day.^ 
With  the  lapse  of  time,  however,  the  Medes  and  the  Persians 
became  more  and  more  reconciled  to  each  other.  The  Magi  were 
the  priests  of  the  Medes ;  they  now  became  the  priests  of  the 
Persians.  This  strengthened  their  position.  No  sacrifices  were 
now  offered  without  them.®  They  were  held  in  great  esteem, 
and  their  exalted  position  at  the  court  of  the  kings  insured  them 
a  considerable  influence  over  the  people.  They  were  looked 
upon  as  the  wise  mediators  between  man  and  God.  They  offi- 
ciated at  the  ceremonies,  chanted  the  hymns,  sacrificed  at  the 
altar,  explained  omens,  practised  divination,  expounded  dreams, 
and  ministered  to  the  various  religious  wants  of  the  people.^*' 

°  Ys.  19.  18.  *  Herod.  3.  79;  cf.  Ctesias,  Pers.,  §15. 

•  Herod,  i.  lOi.  *  Herod,  i.  132. 

^  Herod.  3.  65.  '"Herod,  i.  107,  108;  7.  19,  37. 


THE  AVESTAN  PEOPLE  69 

The  Magi  presumably  implant  the  Zoroastrian  practices 
in  Western  Iran.  It  seems  that  the  Magi  took  a  long  time 
to  supplant  the  religious  practices  of  the  Persians  by  their  re- 
form. The  two  races  differed  very  widely  on  some  of  the  main 
religious  observances.  For  example,  the  Magi  held  the  elements 
of  nature  sacred.  The  earth  was  to  be  kept  pure  from  defilement. 
Hence  they  exposed  the  corpses  of  the  dead  to  be  devoured  by 
birds ;  though  the  Persians,  on  the  contrary,  enclosed  the  corpses 
in  wax,  and  interred  them  in  the  eartli.^^  This  was  probably  a 
concession  to  Magian  practices.  We  gather  from  Arrian  that 
Alexander  sent  the  body  of  Darius  to  be  interred  in  the  royal 
mausoleum  by  the  side  of  the  remains  of  the  departed  ones  of 
the  royal  family  of  Persia.^"  The  Persians  continued  this  practice 
for  a  considerable  time,  until  finally  with  the  complete  fusion  of 
the  two  races  they  seem  to  have  exchanged  burial  for  the  ex- 
posure of  the  corpses.  The  work  of  infusing  the  Zoroastrian 
doctrines  among  the  Persians  probably  began  under  the  earliest 
of  the  Achaemenians.  It  ended  in  the  complete  conversion  of  the 
Persians  to  Zoroastrianism  before  the  wreck  of  their  great 
empire. 

The  classical  writers  speak  of  the  Magi,  and  not  of  the 
Athravans.  The  earliest  Greek  writer  to  acquaint  the  Western 
world  with  the  history  of  the  nations  of  Ancient  Iran  is  Herod- 
otus, who  wrote  about  a  century  and  a  quarter  before  the  fall  of 
the  Achaemenian  empire.  Writing  at  a  period  when  the  Persians 
were  in  the  zenith  of  their  power  in  Western  Iran,  and  when  the 
Magi  were  the  recognized  priestly  class,  he,  with  the  other  writers 
that  follow  him,  acquainted  the  West  with  the  Magi.  The  term 
came  to  be  regarded  as  synonymous  with  learning  and  wisdom. 
The  athravans,  the  real  custodians  of  the  Avesta  and  the  guard- 
ians of  the  Zoroastrian  symbol  of  fire,  are  unknown  to  these 
writers.  This  may  be  due  to  the  fact  that  Eastern  Iran,  which 
was  the  home  of  the  athravans,  had  politically  declined,  and  the 
writers  are  mainly  concerned  with  the  Persians  of  the  west,  and 
their  immediate  predecessors,  the  Medes. 

The  Zoroastrian  practices  alleged  to  have  originated  w^ith 
the  Magi.  The  disposal  of  the  dead  by  exposure  to  the  light  of 
the  sun,  the  reverence  for  the  elements,  fire,  water,  and  earth, 

"  Herodotus,  i.  140. 

^'^  Anabasis,  3.  22.  i ;  and  cf.  Shah-namah,  tr.  Warner,  vol.  6,  p.  56. 


70  THE  AVESTAN  PEOPLE 

the  stringent  laws  for  bodily  cleanliness,  the  active  crusade  against 
noxious  creatures,  are  some  of  the  salient  features  of  the  re- 
ligious practices  and  beliefs  of  the  Magi,  that  we  glean  from  the 
writings  of  the  Greek  authors.     They  comprised  a  part  of  the 
Magian  religion.    The  Magi,  it  seems  to  us,  borrowed  them  from 
the  athravans  at  some  remote  period.     No  data,  however,  are 
available  to  help  us  in  our  task  of  ascertaining  when  this  took 
place.     That  the  Magi  introduced  them  in  Western  Iran  is  uni- 
versally   accepted.      Moreover,    a    school   of   eminent   Western 
scholars   who   uphold   the   theory   of   the   Magian   origin  of  the 
Avesta,  claim  that  these  religious  practices  originated  with  the 
Magi.    They  are  the  characteristic  features  of  the  Magian  faith, 
which,  we  are  told,  during  the  period  of  their  ascendency  the 
Magi  foisted  upon  Zoroastrianism.    The  whole  of  the  Vendidad, 
it  is  claimed,  savours  of  their  spirit,  nay,  it  is  their  work. 

The  internal  evidence  of  the  Avesta  militates  against  the 
theory  of  the  Magian  origin  of  the  sacred  texts.     With  the 
exception  of  a  solitary  passage,  presumably  a  late  interpolation, 
which  pronounces  a  curse  upon  those  who  ill  treat  the  Magi,^^  the 
entire  Avestan  texts  do  not  recognize  the  Magi.    The  class  desig- 
nation of  the  priests  is  persistently  athravan.    The  cardinal  tenets 
of  the  Vendidad,  its  elaborate  rules  for  bodily  purity,  its  copious 
sanitary  code  are  associated  with  the  athravan  in  the  Avestan  texts. 
It  is  not  a  Magus  who  cleanses  the  defiled  by  ablution  ceremonials, 
heals  the  sick  by  the  recital  of  the  holy  spells,  and  moves  about 
with  a  penom  over  his  mouth,  and  a  khrafstraghna  in  his  hand ; 
but  it  is  an  athravan  who  exercises  all  these  powers  and  more. 
The  sacerdotal  class  is  known  by  the  title  of  athravan  through- 
out the  texts.     It  is  the  only  privileged  priestly  class  that  the 
Avesta  recognizes.    It  is  inconceivable  that  the  name  of  the  Magi 
should  not  figure  in  the  work,  if  it  is  composed  by  them.    The 
entire  suppression  of  the  mention  of  their  name  cannot  be  acci- 
dental.   It  must  be  due  to  conscious  purpose  and  premeditation. 
It  is  yet  to  be  proved  that  the  forms  derived  from  maga,  '  great,' 
occurring  in  the  Gathas  and  in  the  Avesta  designate  this  priestly 
class.     The  terms  have  no  bearing  on  this  problem.     Did  the 
athravans  look  to  the  Magi  as  their  undesirable  rivals  in  their 
clerical  profession,  who  disputed  with  them  the  sphere  of  influ- 
ence over  the  hearts  of  the  laity? 

"  Ys.  65.  7. 


THE  AVESTAN  PEOPLE  71 

If  the  athravans  were  not  favourably  disposed  to  the  Magi, 
we  should  have  found  the  latter  classed  among  the  Kavis  and 
the  Karapans,  the  heretical  priestly  castes  upon  whom  they 
invoke  divine  judgment.  They  would  have  warned  the  faithful 
against  their  teachings.  This  they  did  not.  Hence  the  probable 
conclusion  that  the  Avestan  texts  are  the  productions  of  the 
athravans,  the  legitimate  guardians  of  the  Zoroastrian  canon, 
and  that  the  Western  Magi  imbibed  from  them  the  Zoroastrian 
doctrines  which  they  gave  to  the  western  Medes  and  Persians. 


CHAPTER  X 

PROMULGATION  OF  THE  FAITH  OF 
ZARATHUSHTRA 

The  Avestan  works  extol  Zoroastrianism  as  the  excellent 
religion.  The  various  designations  of  the  religion  of  Ancient 
Iran  that  we  meet  with  in  the  Avestan  period  are  the  good 
Mazdayasnian  Zoroastrian  reHgion,  the  Ahurian  faith,  the  Law 
of  Zarathushtra,  and  the  Law  against  the  demons. 

Zarathushtra's  religion  is  spoken  of  as  the  most  excellent 
one  among  all  that  have  been/  and  in  the  confession  of  faith 
the  initiate  hails  it  as  the  greatest,  best,  and  fairest  one  among 
those  that  have  been,  that  are,  and  that  are  to  be.^  It  is 
further  said  that  just  as  the  great  sea  Vourukasha  is  greater 
than  other  waters,  or  as  a  mighty  stream  flows  more  swiftly  than 
the  rivulets,  or  as  a  huge  tree  conceals  under  its  shadow  plants 
and  shrubs,  or  as  the  high  heavens  encompass  the  earth,  even 
so  is  the  religion  of  Zarathushtra  superior  in  greatness,  goodness, 
and  fairness  to  others.^  The  religion  of  Mazda  brings  purity 
unto  him  who  purifies  his  nature  with  good  thoughts,  good  words, 
and  good  deeds,*  and  cleanses  him  of  the  evil  thoughts,  evil 
words,  and  evil  deeds,  as  the  powerful  wind  that  cleanses  the 
plain.^  The  inexpiable  sins  committed  by  a  non-believer  are 
totally  absolved  if  he  embraces  the  faith  of  Zarathushtra,  and 
promises  not  to  sin  again.^  Zoroastrianism  is  synonymous  with 
active  life  and  it  is  figuratively  said  that  whoso  cultivates  corn 
enables  the  religion  of  Mazda  to  move  with  a  hundred  men's 
feet,  suckles  it  by  a  thousand  women's  breasts,  and  propitiates 
it  by  ten  thousand  rituals.^  The  excellent  faith  is  the  veritable 
giver  of  good  unto  all.^ 

The  Zoroastrian  Church  soon  loses  state  support  in  her 
religious   propaganda.    We   have   already   seen   how   great   an 

'  Yt.  13.  91,  92.  *  Vd.  5.  21.  '  Vd.  3-  30,  31- 

^Ys.  12.  9.  °Vd.  3-  42.  "Yt.  II.  3. 

»  Vd.  5-  22-25.  °  Vd.  3.  40,  41. 

72 


PROMULGATION  OF  THE  FAITH  OF  ZARATHUSHTRA     -jz 

impetus  Zoroastrianisni'  received  in  its  early  days  when 
Vishtaspa  and  his  royal  court  embraced  the  new  faith.  But 
the  Mazdayasnian  reUgion  was  not  destined  to  retain  very  long 
this  active  support  and  patronage  of  a  ruling  people.  As  indi- 
cated above,  Eastern  Iran  soon  lost  its  political  influence.  The 
west  had  risen  in  power,  and  the  Zoroastrian  priests,  who  sought 
state  help  in  their  effort  for  the  promulgation  of  their  faith,  had 
to  turn  (though  other  views  may  differ)  to  the  great  Achaemenian 
monarchs  who  presided  over  the  destinies  of  a  vaster  number  of 
people  than  the  petty  chiefs  of  the  royal  house  of  Vishtaspa  had 
done  in  Eastern  Iran.  The  Achaemenian  kings  were  certainly 
Mazdayasnians ;  presumably,  they  were  Zoroastrians.  But  they 
were  decidedly  not  glowing  with  the  religious  fervour  of  mis- 
sionary zeal.  They  never  demanded  conversion  to  their  own 
faith  on  the  part  of  the  conquered  races.  Their  empire  was  made 
up  of  various  nationalities  of  diverse  faith,  and  the  Achaemenian 
rulers  were  always  tolerant  towards  the  religions  of  these  subject 
races.  Guided,  perhaps  by  political  expediency,  they  often  built 
or  restored  the  temples  of  alien  peoples,  and  occasionally  even  hon- 
oured the  Jewish,  Egyptian,  Babylonian,  and  Greek  divinities.^ 
Cyrus  ordered  the  restoration  of  the  temple  at  Jerusalem,^"  and 
Darius,  the  devout  worshipper  of  Auramazda,  favoured  its  rebuild- 
ing as  decreed  by  Cyrus.^^  According  to  the  Babylonian  inscrip- 
tions, Cyrus  restored  the  gods  of  Sumer  and  Akkad  to  their  former 
temples,  from  which  they  had  been  brought  out  by  Nabuna'id,  the 
last  native  ruler  of  Babylon.  He  returned  the  captive  gods  of 
Kutu  to  their  home  and  rebuilt  their  temples.^"  Cyrus  was  the 
shepherd  and  the  anointed  of  Yahweh  in  Judea,^^  he  was  the 
chosen  of  Marduk  in  Babylon.  Darius  is  called  the  son  of  the 
goddess  Neit  of  Sais,  in  an  Egyptian  inscription  at  Tell  el- 
Maskhutah.^*  Cambyses  ordered  the  purification  of  the  dese- 
crated temple  of  Neit,  and  paid  homage  to  the  goddess.^^  In  a 
Greek  inscription  Darius  reproved  his  satrap  Gadatas  for  neglect- 

*  Cf.   Gray,  Achacmenians,  in  ERE.,  vol.   i,  pp.  69-73. 

"•  Ezra  I.  i-ii ;  3-  7;  4-  3;  Is.  44.  28;  2  Chron.  36.  22,  23. 

"  Ezra  6.  1-15. 

^'  Cylinder  Inscription,  32-35. 

"  Is.  44.  28;  45.  I. 

^^  Golenischeff,  Recueil  de  Travaux  relatifs  a  la  Philologie,  13.  106, 
107. 

'"  Petrie,  A  History  of  Egypt  from  the  Nineteenth  to  the  Thirtieth 
Dynasties,  3.  361,  362,  London,  1905. 


74     PROMULGATION  OF  THE  FAITH  OF  ZARATHUSHTRA 

ing  the  reverential  attitude  toward  Apollo.^*'  In  vain  would  a 
zealous  priestly  class  look  to  such  royal  patrons  for  active  help  in 
their  missionary  work,»much  less  in  their  aggressive  attitude 
towards  the  beliefs  of  other  peoples.  In  the  absence  of  any 
organized  and  systematic  missionary  movement  encouraged  or 
furthered  by  the  state,  the  priests  must  thus  have  had  to  rely 
upon  their  own  efforts  and  personal  exertions  in  their  religious 
propaganda.  The  pontifical  successors  of  Zarathushtra  had  to 
wait  long  before  their  cherished  ideal  of  bringing  about  the  union 
between  the  Zoroastrian  Church  and  State  was  reaHzed  under  the 
Sasanian  empire. 

The  religious  propaganda.  The  authors  of  the  sacred  texts 
of  the  Younger  Avestan  period  depict  Zarathushtra  as  saying 
that  he  will  exhort  the  people  of  the  house  and  clan,  town  and 
country  to  embrace  the  Mazdayasnian  religion  and  teach  them 
to  practise  it  faithfully  in  their  thoughts,  their  words,  and  their 
deeds."  The  devout  followers  of  the  faith  wish  eagerly  to 
spread  abroad  between  heaven  and  earth  the  Ahuna  Vairya,  or 
most  sacred  formula  of  the  Iranian  faith,  together  with  the  other 
holy  prayers.  ^«  The  zealous  priests  invoke  Chisti,  the  heavenly 
associate  of  Daena,  or  religion,  to  grant  them  a  good  memory 
and  strength  for  their  body.'»  These  Zoroastrian  missionaries 
travelled  to  distant  lands  for  the  purpose  of  promulgating  the 
religion,  and  their  homeward  return  from  their  sacred  missions 
is  celebrated  by  the  faithful.-*^  The  proselytizing  zeal  on  the  part 
of  the  Zoroastrian  priests  seems  to  have  provoked  opposition 
from  non-believers.  Keresani,  a  powerful  ruler  of  a  foreign 
land,  we  are  informed,  prevented  the  fire-priests  of  Iran  from 
visiting  his  country  to  preach  the  Zoroastrian  doctrines.-^  In 
spite  of  all  such  obstacles  thrown  in  their  way,  the  Zoroastrian 
missionaries  gradually  succeeded  in  planting  the  banner  of  their 
national  faith  both  near  and  afar. 

Spread  of  Zoroastrianism  to  remote  lands.  Attention  has 
already  been  called  to  the  fact  that  the  Gathas  celebrated  the 
conversion  of  Fryana  the  Turanian  and  his  descendants.  The 
Avestan  texts  include  some  more  Turanian  names  in  the  canon- 

''  Cousin    and    Deschamps,    Lettre    de    Darius,    fils    d'Hysiaspes,    in 
Bulletin  de  Correspondance  Hellenique,  vol.  13,  pp.  529-542. 
•'  Ys.  8.  7- 

'«Ys.  61.  I.  "Ys.  42.  6. 

"Yt.  16.  17.  "  Ys.  9-  24. 


PROMULGATION  OF  THE  FAITH  OF  ZARATHUSHTRA     75 

ical  list  of  sainted  persons."  The  most  illustrious  of  these 
Turanian  Zoroastrians  was  Yoisht-i  Fryana,  who  sacrificed  unto 
Ardvi  Sura  and  begged  of  her  as  a  boon  that  he  might  be 
able  to  answer  the  riddles  that  the  malicious  wizard  Akhtya  put 
■  to  him.2^  The  boon  was  granted  him,^*  and  the  later  Pahlavi 
treatise  which  bears  the  name  of  the  Turanian  saint  adds  that 
Yoisht-i  Fryana  solved  the  enigmas  put  forth  by  the  wizard 
who  was  killing  all  those  who  were  unable  to  answer  his  ques- 
tions. The  saint,  in  his  turn,  proposed  to  Akhtya  three  riddles, 
which  the  wizard  was  unable  to  answer.  The  saint,  thereupon, 
put  the  sorcerer  to  death. ^^  The  Fravardin  Yasht  ^'^  commemo- 
rates the  Fravashi  of  Saena,  an  illustrious  convert  to  Zoroastrian- 
ism.  We  learn  from  the  Pahlavi  works  that  this  apostle  of  the 
faith  left  behind  him  one  hundred  disciples  who  preached  the 
Mazdayasnian  faith  in  the  land  of  Seistan.^^  Armenia  came  under 
the  Zoroastrian  influence  at  a  very  early  date,  and  a  corrupt  form 
of  Zoroastrianism  prevailed  in  the  country  for  several  centuries. ^^ 
Cappadocia,  Lydia,  and  Lycia  were  the  scene  of  an  active  Zoro- 
astrian propaganda.  The  Aramaic  inscriptions  recently  discovered 
in  Cappadocia  mention  Daena,  the  female  genius  of  the  Maz- 
dayasnian religion  conjointly  with  the  native  god  Bel.^^  India  and 
China  witnessed  the  spread  of  the  gospel  of  Iran.''*' 

The  proselytizing  work  on  the  part  of  the  Zoroastrian  min- 
isters of  the  faith  was  thus  carried  on  with  a  considerable  amount 
of  success,  though  we  are  not  in  a  position  to  form  any  idea 
regarding  the  numbers  of  the  followers  of  the  religion  of  Mazda 
at  this  period. 


22 

2S 
24 

2S 


Yt.  13.  113,  120,  123. 
Yt.  5.  81-82. 
lb.  83. 

Cf.   West  and   Haug,   Yosht-i  Fryan,  in  Arda    Viraf,  pp.  247-266, 
London,  1872. 
"  Yt.  13.  97- 

^'  Modi,  The  Wonders  of  Sagastan,  in  Aiyadgar-i  Zariran,  pp.  126,  127, 
Bombay,  1899.  For  further  references,  see  Jackson,  Zoroaster,  p.  137, 
n.  6,  New  York,  1899. 

'*  Cf.  Ananikian,  Armenia  (Zoroastrian),  in  ERE.,  vol.  i,  pp.  794-802. 
^°  Lidzbarski,  Ephemeris  fUr  Semitische  Epigraphik,  vol.  i,  p.  67  f., 
Giessen,   1902. 

'"  Shah-namah,  tr.  Warner,  vol.  i,  pp.  76,  77.  For  references  re- 
garding the  Zoroastrian  propaganda  in  China,  see  Jackson,  Zoroaster, 
pp.  278-280. 


CHAPTER  XI 
THE  YOUNGER  AVESTAN  RELIGION 

From  the  Gathas  to  the  Later  Avesta,  a  retrograde  step. 
We  now  enter  upon  a  new  field  of  investigation,  and  move  in  an 
entirely  changed  atmosphere  as  we  proceed.  The  buoyant  spirit 
of  the  Gathic  hymns  is  preserved  to  a  great  extent  in  the  prose 
compositions  of  the  Haptanghaiti,  or  the  section  of  '  Seven 
Chapters  '  in  the  Avestan  Yasna,  written  in  the  Gathic  dialect 
during  the  transition  period  that  intervened  between  the  close 
of  the  Gathic  age  and  the  opening  of  the  Avestan  period. 
The  lofty  tone  of  the  earlier  compositions  gradually  declines, 
and  the  greater  part  of  the  Yasna,  Yashts,  and  Vendidad 
becomes  heavy  and  monotonous.  On  only  rare  occasions  do 
the  texts  exhibit  sudden  flashes  of  transcendent  beauty  and  de- 
vout fervour.  The  growing  tendency  is  for  complexity  and  con- 
creteness.  The  Gathas  generally  dealt  with  the  abstract  con- 
cepts. Every  one  of  the  Amesha  Spentas,  as  we  have  already 
seen,  impersonated  some  cardinal  virtue.  Though  Asha,  the 
genius  of  righteousness,  and  Haurvatat,  that  of  perfection,  have 
each  a  Yasht  consecrated  to  them  in  the  Younger  Avesta,  the 
abstract  virtues  of  these  archangels  do  not  receive  any  recogni- 
tion in  these  hymns.  The  secondary  and  concrete  qualities  with 
new  associations  loom  larger  in  the  thoughts  of  their  composers 
than  do  the  primary  qualifications.  Rather  than  dealing  with  the 
righteousness  of  Asha  Vahishta  and  the  perfection  of  Haurvatat, 
the  later  texts  expatiate  upon  their  healing  powers  by  means  of 
the  recital  of  the  various  formulas  of  magical  efficacy  and  the 
spells  to  drive  away  the  demons  of  disease  and  death.  This 
general  tendency  of  drifting  towards  the  concrete  and  material 
in  religion  is  the  characteristic  feature  of  the  times  and  endures 
throughout  the  Younger  Avestan  as  well  as  the  subsequent  Pahlavi 
period,  in  which  it  reaches  its  climax. 

Daena,  Chisti,  Mithra,  Raman,  Rata,  Manthra,  Airyaman, 
Asha,  Hvare,  Maonghah,  Asman,  Ushah,  Atar,  and  Zam  fur- 

76 


THE  YOUNGER  AVESTAN  RELIGION  ^^ 

nish  us  with  instances  in  which  terms  that  were  used  in  the 
Gathas  to  connote  the  ordinary  meanings  are  now  personified 
as  angels. 

The  Indo-Iranian  cult  that  passes  under  the  mantle  of 
Zarathushtra.  The  divinities  to  whom  the  pre-Zoroastrian 
Iranians  paid  their  homage,  and  all  of  whom  were  conspicuous 
by  their  absence  in  the  Gathas,  now  pervade  the  entire  Avestan 
religion.  The  major  portion  of  the  Avestan  texts  sings  of  their 
glory.  They  form  an  indissoluble  part  of  the  religion  of  this 
period,  and  have  remained  so  up  to  this  day.  To  think  of 
Zoroastrianism  without  them  is  inconceivable.  The  two  cannot 
be  separated.  And  yet  they  do  not  get  recognition  in  the  Gathas. 
This  absence  of  mention  by  the  prophet  of  the  divinities  whom 
the  ancients  knew  and  honoured,  and  who  occupy  a  pre-eminent 
position  in  the  later  development  of  Zoroastrianism,  has  been  a 
great  problem  that  has  so  far  defied  solution. 

It  is  generally  asserted  by  Western  scholars  that  Zoroaster's 
religion  was  a  reform  of  the  primitive  faith  of  the  Iranians. 
But  the  reform  had  not  lasted  long,  owing  to  the  counter- 
reformation  that  had  followed  the  prophet's  death.  This  re- 
vived the  religion  that  Zoroaster  came  to  replace.  The  prophet 
had  dethroned  and  banished  the  Indo-Iranian  divinities  from  the 
spiritual  kingdom.  But  they  had  once  more  usurped  the  throne, 
and  with  common  consent  passed  themselves  off  as  indigenous 
satraps  in  the  kingdom  of  Ahura  Mazda.  Their  cult  was  too  deep 
rooted  to  die  out  soon,  and  the  priests  were  compelled  to  admit 
it  into  the  Zoroastrian  theology,  when  the  towering  personality  of 
Zoroaster  was  removed  from  the  scene  of  activity  after  his 
death. 

It  seems  to  us  that  we  tread  a  very  delicate  path  when  we 
set  aside  as  non-Zoroastrian  all  that  does  not  appear  in  the 
Gathas.  Are  we  sure  we  are  standing  on  firm  ground  when  we 
dogmatically  assert  that  the  prophet  of  Iran  discarded  the  pan- 
theon and  purposely  kept  it  out  of  his  religion  of  reform?  The 
Haoma  ceremony  is  indissolubly  interwoven  in  the  Yasna  ritual 
from  the  Avestan  period  down  to  the  present  day.  But  the 
Gathas  are  silent  about  it.  It  is  therefore  alleged  that  Zara- 
thushtra looked  upon  this  Indo-Iranian  cult  with  abhorrence,  and 
the  occurrence  of  Haoma's  epithet  '  far  from  death  '  in  Ys.  32.  14 
is   cited  to  prove,   as  we  have  already  seen,  that  the  prophet 


78  THE  YOUNGER  AVESTAN  RELIGION 

branded  the  cult  as  evil.  Perhaps  he  did  so,  perhaps  not.  We 
have  no  means  to  ascertain  it.  The  Indo-Iranian  divinities 
Mithra,  Verethraghna,  and  others  occupy  a  most  exahed  place 
in  the  Avestan  and  subsequent  periods.  The  Gathas  of  Zara- 
thushtra  knew  them  not.  Are  they  post-Zoroastrian?  Did  they 
migrate  to  Iran  after  the  passing  away  of  the  prophet  from  this 
world?  This  cannot  be.  For  the  pre-Zoroastrian  kings  and 
heroes  knew  them  and  sacrificed  unto  them.  They  shared  the 
spiritual  domination  over  the  hearts  of  the  people  of  Iran  when 
Zarathushtra  preached  his  new  faith.  And  yet  the  prophet  does 
not  immortalize  them  in  his  Gathas. 

We  are  not  unmindful  of  the  argument  that  the  Gathas, 
being  short  devotional  hymns  for  the  use  of  the  faithful,  may 
not  be  expected  to  contain  the  entire  Avesta  pantheon,  or  an 
elaborate  ritual.  The  argument  may  explain  something,  but  not 
all.  It  fails  to  account  for  the  entire  elimination  of  the  very  names 
of  the  most  prominent  angels  Mithra,  Verethraghna,  and  their 
associates.  Vital  problems  as  these  remain  unsolved.  In  the 
absence  of  sufficient  data,  it  is  not  possible  for  us  to  determine 
what  particular  Indo-Iranian  beliefs  and  practices  were  dis- 
countenanced by  the  prophet,  and  yet  admitted  into  the  Zoro- 
astrian  theology  as  a  concession  to  the  unbending  will  of  the 
populace  by  the  prophet's  successors. 

The  angels  that  outshine  the  archangels.  Some  of  the 
Yazatas,  both  those  of  pure  Iranian  extraction  and  those  of  Indo- 
Iranian  origin,  have  risen  to  such  a  great  popularity  during  this 
period  that  they  are  honoured  more  than  the  Amesha  Spentas. 
The  angels  Anahita  and  Tishtrya,  Mithra  and  Verethraghna 
figure  more  prominently  than  the  archangels  Vohu  Manah  and 
Asha  Vahishta,  Armaiti  and  Ameretat.  Some  of  the  longest 
Yashts,  or  sacrificial  hymns,  are  composed  in  their  honour.  Yet 
the  archangels,  who  are  higher  in  the  spiritual  hierarchy,  who 
occupied  a  unique  position  in  the  Gathas,  and  whose  glory  the 
prophet  ever  sang  with  his  clarion  voice  to  the  people  of  Iran, 
have  now  either  to  content  themselves  with  short  laudatory  com- 
positions or  go  entirely  without  any  special  dedication.  Some  of 
the  attributes  that  are  the  prerogative  of  Ahura  Mazda  alone  are 
lavishly  applied  to  the  leading  angels ;  but  the  authors  are  sparing 
even  to  parsimony  when  they  confer  honorific  epithets  on  the 
Amesha  Spentas. 


THE  YOUNGER  AVESTAN  RELIGION  79 

Great  as  the  benevolence  of  these  celestial  beings  is,  it 
is  tarnished  by  their  imprecations  upon  their  careless  votaries. 
A  few  of  the  Yazatas,  or  Adorable  Ones,  are  conjointly  honoured 
with  Ahura  Mazda  in  the  same  strain.  They  are  eager  to  help 
man  and  stand  by  his  side  in  the  hour  of  his  need,  if  they  are 
invoked.  They  help  man,  if  man  remembers  them.  Moreover, 
they  are  themselves  strengthened  in  their  work  by  man's  offer- 
ings. Tishtrya  despondently  complains  to  Ahura  Mazda  that 
he  is  worsted  by  his  adversary  Apaosha  because  mankind  do 
not  propitiate  him  with  sacrifices  as  they  ought  to.  If  they 
did  so,  Tishtrya  would  be  emboldened  and  enabled  to  con- 
duct his  warfare  with  the  demon  of  drought  more  vigorously. 
There  is  a  ring  of  partial  jealousy  for  his  more  fortunate  com- 
panions, when  we  hear  Tishtrya  bitterly  complaining  that  people 
do  not  sacrifice  unto  him  to  the  extent  that  they  do  unto  the 
other  angels,  who  are  more  popular  among  them.  Mithra,  like- 
wise, complains  of  man's  occasional  neglect  of  his  invocation, 
which  evokes  his  displeasure.  And  Mithra  is  terrible  when 
angered.  Unless  man  appeases  his  wrath  by  abundant  sacri- 
fices, he  punishes  his  wretched  victim  mercilessly.  Similarly,  the 
Fravashis,  or  Guardian  Spirits,  are  the  most  helpful  genii,  but  on 
condition  that  man  propitiates  them  with  sacrifices.  When  satis- 
fied, they  are  of  indescribable  help,  but  once  ofifended  they  are 
hard  to  deal  with.  They  are  to  be  approached  with  religious  awe. 
They  are  to  be  feared,  rather  than  loved.  This  fear  of  the 
celestial  beings  may  engender  obedience  in  man,  but  not  devotion. 
And  devotion  is  the  higher  of  the  two  virtues. 

Ahura  Mazda  invokes  his  heavenly  ministers  for  help.  In 
the  Gathas  we  saw  Ahura  Mazda  co-operating  and  holding  con- 
ferences and  working  in  consort  with  his  heavenly  subordinates. 
The  Younger  Avesta  gives  a  picture  of  a  step  in  advance  in 
this  direction.  Here  Ahura  Mazda  is  often  depicted  as  sacri- 
ficing unto  the  minor  divinities,  and  asking  for  boons  from 
them.  For  instance,  he  prays  to  Ardvi  Sura,  Mithra,  and  Vayu 
for  favours,  and  they  grant  him  these  boons. ^  Vayu  even  goes 
further  and  says  he  does  good  to  Ahura  Mazda.^  The  Fravashis 
helped  Ahura  Mazda,  and  the  Lord  himself  says  that  had  he  not 
received  their  help,  great  would  have  been  the  difficulty.^  But 
even  here  it  is  expressly  said  that  all  these  beings  whom  Ahura 

'Yt.  5.  17-19;  10.  123;  15.  2-4.  'Yt.  15.  44-  *Yt.  13.  12,  19. 


8o  THE  YOUNGER  AVESTAN  RELIGION 

Mazda  invokes  for  help  are  his  creations.  It  is  he  himself  who 
has  made  Tishtrya  and  Mithra  as  worthy  of  honour,  sacrifice, 
and  prayer  as  himself.*  Rather  than  commanding  his  envoys  and 
viceroys  as  the  sovereign  ruler  to  put  his  orders  into  execution, 
he  solicits  their  co-operation  in  his  work.  Besides,  Ahura 
Mazda's  offering  sacrifices  unto  other  beings  turns  out  a  source 
of  help  to  them.  Tishtrya  in  his  distress  looks  to  Ahura  Mazda 
for  help.  Mazda,  thereupon,  sacrifices  unto  him,  which  gives 
Tishtrya  renewed  vigour  and  strength  to  fight  his  adversary 
Apaosha.^ 

Ceremonial  implements,  textual  passages,  and  objects  and 
expressions  that  share  invocation.  In  common  with  the  Vedas, 
the  Avestan  texts  deify  the  ritual  implements,  textual  passages 
of  the  scriptures,  and  other  like  objects.  The  expressions  of 
invocation  and  sacrifice  applied  to  them  are  the  same  as  those 
used  in  honour  of  Ahura  Mazda,  the  Amesha  Spentas,  and  the 
Yazatas.  The  following  are  the  objects  that  come  in  for  a  share 
of  invocation  in  the  ritual :  Haoma,  Aesma  or  the  wood  for  the 
fire  altar,''  Baresman  or  the  sacred  twigs,  Zaothra  or  libations, 
one's  own  soul  and  Fravashi,'''  the  Gathas,  the  chapters  of  the 
Yasna  Haptanghaiti,^  metres,  lines,  words  of  the  chapters  of  the 
Haptanghaiti,^  intellect,  conscience,^"  knowledge,^^  and  even 
sleep.^^  Thus  the  creator  and  his  creature,  angel  and  man,  cere- 
monial implements  and  scriptural  texts  are  all  alike  made  the 
objects  of  adoration  and  praise. 

Zarathushtra's  monologues  in  the  Gathas  as  against  his 
dialogues  in  the  Avesta.  In  the  Gathas  the  prophet  addressed 
several  questions  to  Ahura  Mazda,  but  the  replies  were  left  to 
be  inferred  from  the  context.  An  advance  is  made  upon  this 
method,  and  now  we  have  Zoroaster  depicted  as  putting  questions, 
and  Aliura  Mazda  himself  as  answering  them  categorically. 
To  invest  their  compositions  with  divine  sanction  and  prophetic 
authority,  the  later  sages  wrote  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue  between 

*  Yt.  8.  52 ;  10.  I. 
'  Yt.  8.  25-29. 
«Ys.  6.  18;  7.  26. 
"  Ys.  59.  28;  71.  18. 
"  Ys.  71.  12,  18. 

•  Vsp.  16.  3. 
"  Yt.  13.  74- 

"  Ys.  22.  25;  25.  6;  Yt.  2.  I ;  Sr.  i.  2,  29;  2.  2,  29. 
'=  Vsp.  7.  3- 


THE  YOUNGER  AVESTAN  RELIGION  8i 

Ahura  Mazda  and  his  prophet.  The  greater  part  of  the  Vendi- 
dad  and  some  of  the  Yashts  are  composed  in  this  style.  Escorted 
by  the  celestial  Yazatas,  Ahura  Mazda  comes  down  to  Airyana 
Vaejah  to  attend  a  meeting  of  mortals  convened  by  Yima,  and 
warns  him  of  the  coming  destructive  winter  and  frost.^-^ 

The  Avesta  looks  with  unrelenting  abhorrence  upon  idols 
and  images  of  divinities.  Idolatry  in  any  form  is  sin.  The 
Shah  Namah  abounds  in  passages  depicting  the  Persian  kings  and 
heroes  as  conducting  a  crusade  against  idols  and  idol-worship. 
The  conquering  armies  of  Persia  always  destroyed  the  idols  and 
razed  their  temples  to  the  ground.  Herodotus  writes  that  the 
Persians  did  not  erect  idols.^*  Sotion  adds  that  they  hated 
idols. ^^  The  statues  of  different  divinities  were,  however,  not 
unknown  among  the  Achaemenians.  The  winged  figure  floating 
over  the  head  of  Darius  on  the  rock  sculptures  at  Behistan  is 
probably  a  representation  of  Auramazda.  We  have  it  on  the 
authority  of  Berosus  that  the  Achaemenian  king  Artaxerxes 
Mnemon  ^^  had  statues  erected  to  Anahita  in  Babylon,  Ecbatana, 
Susa,  Persepolis,  Bactria,  Damascus,  and  Sardis.^'^  Strabo  de- 
scribes the  image  of  Omanus,  that  is,  Vohu  Manah,  as  being 
carried  at  a  later  period  in  procession  in  Cappadocia.^^ 

We  find  no  traces  of  such  open  disregard  of  the  genuine  teach- 
ings of  the  faith,  when  the  priesthood  firmly  established  its  in- 
fluence. Orthodox  Zoroastrianism  never  sanctioned  any  form 
of  idol-worship  in  Iran. 

The  Yazatas,  or  angels,  Tishtrya,  Verethraghna,  Dahma 
Afriti,  and  Damoish  Upamana  introduce  a  novel  feature  in  the 
theology  of  this  period.  They  are  pictured  as  assuming  various 
forms  of  man,  horse,  and  other  objects  in  the  performance  of 
their  allotted  work. 

"  Vd,  2.  21,  22.  "B.C.  404-358. 

'*  I.  131.  "  Fragm.  16,  FHG.  2.  508,  509- 

^°  Diogenes  Laetius,  Proaem.  6.  **  P.  733. 


CHAPTER  XII 

AHURA  MAZDA 

Ahura,  Mazda,  and  Ahura  Mazda.  The  name  of  God  still 
retains  its  two  elements  separate.  These  have  not  yet  coalesced 
into  one  word.  In  the  metrical  sections  of  the  Younger  Avesta 
the  two  elements  are  sometimes  used  apart  from  each  other,  or 
either  one  of  the  terms  may  be  used  to  designate  the  Supreme 
Being,  but  in  the  prose  compositions  the  collocation  Ahura 
Mazda  generally  occurs  as  a  compound  phrase.  In  the  formation 
of  compounds,  however,  either  Ahura  or  Mazda  alone  is  used 
for  the  sake  of  convenience.  The  Ahura  compounds  such  as 
Ahiira-dhata,  '  created  by  Ahura,'  Ahura-tkaesha,  '  of  the  faith 
of  Ahura,'  or  the  adjectival  form  ahuiri,  '  of  Ahura,'  invariably 
represent  the  divine  lord  Ahura  Mazda.  Similarly,  the  Mazda 
element  in  the  compounds  Masda-dhata,  '  created  by  Mazda,' 
Mazda-yasna,  '  worshipper  of  IMazda,'  Mazdo-frasasta,  '  taught 
by  Mazda,'  Mazdo-fraokhta  or  Mazdaokhta,  '  spoken  by  Mazda,' 
invariably  stands  for  Ahura  Mazda  himself. 

Ahura  Mazda  is  the  highest  object  of  worship.  Ahura 
Mazda  still  holds  sovereign  sway  over  both  the  worlds;  his 
authority  in  the  world  of  Righteousness  is  undisputed,  and  his 
imperial  right  is  unchallenged.  He  is  the  greatest  and  the  very 
best  of  the  angels.^  The  Old  Persian  Inscriptions  speak  of  him 
as  the  greatest  of  the  divinities. ^  The  archangels  and  angels 
dutifully  carry  out  Mazda's  orders.  Reverence  for  him  has 
never  abated,  and  adoration  of  him  does  not  languish  with  the 
advent  again  of  the  old  Indo-Iranian  divinities.  He  is  yet  the 
sublimest  goal  of  human  aspiration.  The  best  of  all  sacrifices  and 
invocations  are  those  of  Mazda.^ 

The  Achaemenian  kings  most  devoutly  ascribe  all  their 
greatness  and  success  to  Auramazda.*  Darius  says  with  fervent 
piety  that  Auramazda  made  him  king  and  enabled  him  to  hold 

^  Ys.  i6.  I ;  Yt.  17.  16.  '  TdFr.  28. 

'  Dar.  Pers.  d.  i ;  Xerx.  Ely.  i ;  Xerx.  Van.  i.  *  Av.  Ahura  Mazda. 

82 


AHURA  MAZDA  83 

his  vast  kingdom  firm.  Everything  that  the  king  did  or  every 
glory  that  he  achieved  was  by  the  will  of  the  Lord.  Every 
battle  that  he  won  and  every  army  of  the  enemy  that  he  routed 
was  by  the  grace  of  Auramazda.^  Xerxes  zealously  imitates  his 
illustrious  father  and  attributes  everything  of  his  to  Auramazda, 
and  invokes  his  protection  for  himself  and  his  empire.®  It  is 
again  Auramazda  who  brought  the  kingdom  to  Artaxerxes  III.'' 

The  faithful  acknowledge  their  indebtedness  to  Ahura  Mazda 
and  devoutly  offer  to  him  their  homage  and  sacrifice.®  They 
worship  him  with  the  very  life  of  the  body,''  and  they  long  to 
reach  him  through  the  medium  of  fire,  through  the  Good  Mind, 
through  Righteousness,  and  through  the  deeds  and  words  of 
wisdom,  as  well  as  through  good  thoughts,  good  words,  and  good 
deeds. ^°  Ahura  Mazda  in  fact  is  implored  to  be  their  very  life 
and  limb  in  both  the  worlds."  It  is  through  the  Best  Righteous- 
ness that  the  true  in  heart  aspire  to  behold  the  Lord,  to  approach 
him,  and  to  associate  with  him.^-  The  attainment  of  the  companion- 
ship and  the  Kingdom  of  Ahura  Mazda  is  the  pious  wish  of  the 
supplicant. ^^ 

Mazda's  titles.  The  Yasna  sacrifice  opens  with  the  praise 
of  Ahura  Mazda  and  enumerates  the  following  divine  titles : 
maker,  radiant,  glorious,  the  greatest,  the  best,  the  most  beauti- 
ful, the  most  firm,  the  most  wise,  of  the  most  perfect  form,  the 
highest  in  righteousness,  possessed  of  great  joy,  creator,  fash- 
ioner, nourisher,  and  the  Most  Holy  Spirit.^*  He  is  all-pervading. 
There  is  no  conceivable  place  where  he  is  not.  Closer  than  the 
nose  is  to  the  ears,  or  the  ears  are  to  the  mouth,  is  he  to  all 
that  which  the  corporeal  world  thinks,  speaks,  and  does.^^  He 
is  the  greatest  temporal  and  spiritual  lord.^**  He  is  the  absolute 
ruler.^^  He  is  the  most  mighty  and  righteous.^®  He  is  the 
maker,  the  most  holy,  the  most  wise,  and  the  best  one  to 
answer  when  questioned. ^^    His  is  the  omniscient  wisdom.-*'    He 

°Bh.  I.  5-9,  13,  14,  18,  19;  2.  20,  25-31,  33,  35;  3.  36,  38,  41,  42,  45, 
46;  4.  50,  52,  54,  56-59,  62,  63;  5.  72,  75;  Pers.  d.  1-3;  e.  2;  NR.  a.  i,  3-5; 
b.  I ;  Elv.  I ;  Sz.  c.  i. 

°  Pers.  a.  i,  3,  4 ;  b.  i,  3 ;  c.  i,  3 ;  d.  i,  3 ;  Elv.  i ;  Van.  i,  3. 

'  Pers.  a.  i.  '*  Ys.  i.  i. 

"¥8.13.5.  '»TdFr.  58,  59. 

Ys.  37.  3.  '°  Ys.  27.  I;  Vsp.  II.  21. 

Ys.  36.  I,  4,  5-  "  Ys.  21.  3- 

Ys.  41.  3.  '"  Ys.  56.  I. 

Ys.  60.  12.  "  Vd.  18.  7,  13,  66. 

Ys.  40.  2;  41.  2,  5,  6.  '"Vsp.  19.  I. 


9 

10 
11 
12 


84  AHURA  MAZDA 

is  omniscient  and  never  sleeping.^^  Radiant  and  glorious  are 
the  most  frequent  epithets  with  which  the  texts  open  the  invoca- 
tion to  the  divinity.  Above  all  Ahura  Mazda  is  the  spirit  of 
spirits.^-  This  essential  trait  stands  intact  through  all  changes  in 
the  concept  of  God.  He  is  not  invested  with  any  anthropo- 
morphic character,  even  though  there  may  linger  some  reminis- 
cent phases  of  the  sky-god  such  as  belong  to  all  inspired  religions ; 
and  his  multifarious  epithets  are  truly  the  figurative  expressions 
of  human  language  used  by  man  in  his  feeble  attempt  to  give 
vent  to  an  outburst  of  the  feelings  of  devotion  and  reverence  for 
his  Heavenly  Father.  Ahura  Mazda  is  synonymous  with  light, 
even  as  his  opponent  is  identical  with  darkness,  and  the  sun  is 
spoken  of  as  his  most  beautiful  form.^^  In  still  another  passage 
the  sun  is  called  the  eye  of  Ahura  Mazda.-*  Speaking  about  the 
nature  of  Ahura  Mazda,  Plutarch  well  remarks  that  among 
objects  of  sense  the  Zoroastrian  godhead  most  of  all  resembles 
the  light.-^"^^  The  star-spangled  heaven  is  his  garment ;  ^^  the  holy 
spell  is  his  soul.^^  Many  are  the  names  by  which  mankind  have 
learnt  to  know  him.  The  first  Yasht,  which  is  dedicated  to  him, 
enumerates  seventy-four  of  these  attributes.  They  are  all  descrip- 
tive of  his  wisdom,  power,  righteousness,  justice,  and  mercy.^^ 

Only  the  world  of  righteousness  is  created  by  Ahura 
Mazda.  As  the  antithesis  between  the  Deity  and  the  Evil  Spirit 
is  now  most  strongly  marked  in  the  Later  Avesta,  the  godhead 
is  expressly  described  as  the  creator  of  everything  that  is  good,^° 
evil  being  the  counter-creation  of  Angra  Mainyu.  Ahura  Mazda 
and  Angra  Mainyu  in  the  younger  texts  are  described  as  creat- 
ing good  and  evil  in  turn.  The  archangels  are  Mazda's 
creations ;  ^^  so  also  are  the  angels  and  men,  the  animals,  sky, 
water,  trees,  light,  and  earth.^-  Closely  parallel  to  Ys.  37.  i, 
which  enumerates  Ahura  Mazda's  earthly  creation,  the  Old 
Persian  Inscriptions  state  that  Auramazda  has  created  this  earth, 

"  Vd.  19.  20. 

"  Ys.  4.  7. 

='Ys.  36.  6;  58.  8. 

"Ys.  I.  II. 

"-"  Is.  et  Os.  46. 

"  Yt.  13.  3- 

"  Yt.  13.  81. 

•"  Yt.  I.  7,  8,  12-15. 

'"Ys.  71,  10;  Vsp.  II.  S;  Vd.  11.  i. 

"  Yt.  I.  25. 

"  Ys.  I.  I,  2,  12;  17.  12;  37.  I ;  Vsp.  7.  4;  Vd.  19.  35;  21.  4.  8,  12;  Aog.  30. 

r 


AHURA  MAZDA  85 

yonder  heaven,  man,  and  peace  for  man."  In  the  various  in- 
quiries which  Zarathushtra  addresses  to  Ahura  Mazda  in  the 
Vendidad,  the  divinity  is  portrayed  as  the  creator  of  the  cor- 
poreal world.  Ahura  expressly  says  to  Zarathushtra  that  he 
has  created  everything  in  the  world,  and  yet  nothing  in  his 
creation  comes  up  to  the  level  of  man,  who  is  the  greatest  and  the 
best  of  all  creations.**  Through  the  wisdom  of  Ahura  Mazda 
the  world  has  come  into  being,  and  through  his  divine  wisdom  it 
will  come  also  to  an  end."^ 

Spenta  Mainyu,  or  the  Holy  Spirit.  The  relation  between 
Ahura  Mazda  and  his  Holy  Spirit  remains  as  subtle  in  the 
Younger  Avestan  texts  as  it  was  in  the  Gathas.  We  have 
already  seen  in  the  treatment  of  this  highly  abstract  concept,  as 
it  is  portrayed  in  the  Gathic  texts,  that  Spenta  Mainyu  either 
designated  Ahura  Mazda  as  his  divine  attribute,  or  it  occurred  as 
a  being  separate  from  the  godhead.  The  Later  Avestan  texts,  it 
seems  to  us,  lead  us  to  the  idea  that  Spenta  Mainyu  has  no 
independent  existence  apart  from  Ahura  Mazda,  in  other  words 
that  the  Holy  Spirit  is  not  a  personal  being.  The  Later  Avesta, 
moreover,  as  we  shall  see  in  the  subsequent  pages,  teaches  that 
all  earthly  and  heavenly  beings  belonging  to  the  Kingdom  of 
Goodness,  including  Ahura  Mazda  himself,  have  their  Fravashis, 
or  Guardian  Spirits.  Spenta  Mainyu  alone  in  the  realm  of 
the  good  is  without  his  Guardian  Spirit.  Furthermore,  Spenta 
Mainyu  does  not  receive  homage  and  invocation  from  man,  as 
do  Ahura  Mazda,  the  Amesha  Spentas,  and  the  Yazatas.  Spenta 
Mainyu,  therefore,  may  be  taken  as  an  attribute  of  Ahura  Mazda 
which  is  either  conjointly  used  with  the  godhead  as  his  dis- 
tinguishing epithet,  or  occurs  alone  by  itself  to  designate  the 
Supreme  Being.  In  this  latter  use,  it  may  be  said,  Spenta 
Mainyu  represents  Ahura  Mazda,  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
royal  title  'His  Majesty'  is  frequently  used  as  a  substitute  for 
the  name  of  a  king. 

In  contradistinction  to  the  evil  creation  of  Angra  Mainyu,  or 
the  Evil  Spirit,  the  Avestan  texts  speak  of  the  good  creation 
as  belonging  to  Spenta  Mainyu,  the  Holy  Spirit.^^     The  stars 

*'  Dar.  Pers.  g.  i ;  NR.  a.  i ;  Elv.  i ;  Sz.  c.  i ;  Xerx.  Pers.  a.  i ;  b.  i ;  c. 
I ;  d.  I ;  Elv.  i ;  Van.  i ;  Art.  Oc.  Pers.  i. 
"  Aog.  30. 
"  Yt.  I.  26. 
"'  Ys.  57.  17 ;  Yt.  1 1.  12 ;  13.  76 ;  15-  3,  43,  44 ;  Vd.  3-  20 ;  13.  i,  2,  5,  6,  16. 


86 


AHURA  MAZDA 


also  are  spoken  of  as  the  creatures  of  the  Holy  Spirit."  Char- 
acteristic of  the  highly  developed  type  of  dualism  of  the  Younger 
Avestan  period,  we  find  that  the  two  rival  spirits  divide  their 
sphere  of  influence  in  regard  to  the  wind,  or  Vayu.  The  moderate 
wind  that  is  conducive  of  good  is  called  the  wind  of  Spenta 
Mainyu,^^  and  only  to  this  good  part  of  Vayu  are  the  faithful 
to  ofifer  sacrifice.^^  Snavidhka,  a  tyrant  foe  of  the  Iranian  hero 
Keresaspa,  haughtily  exclaims  that  if  he  ever  grew  to  man- 
hood he  would  make  the  heavens  his  chariot,  convert  the  earth 
into  a  wheel,  bring  down  Spenta  Mainyu,  or  the  Holy  Spirit, 
from  the  shining  paradise,  and  make  Angra  Mainyu,  or  the 
Evil  Spirit,  rush  up  from  the  dreary  hell,  and  compel  them  to 
draw  his  chariot.**'  In  a  couple  of  instances  Ahura  Mazda  is 
depicted  as  speaking  of  the  Holy  Spirit  as  apart  from  himself. 
Speaking  about  the  great  work  of  the  Fravashis,  or  the  Guardian 
Spirits,  Ahura  Mazda  says'  that  had  not  the  Fravashis  helped 
him,  the  wicked  Druj  would  have  smitten  the  good  creation,  and 
it  would  never  have  been  possible  for  Spenta  Mainyu  to  deal  a 
blow  to  Angra  Mainyu.*^  Ahura  Mazda  sacrifices  unto  Vayu 
and  asks  from  this  angel  of  wind  a  boon,  that  he  may  smite  the 
creation  of  Angra  Mainyu,  but  that  none  may  smite  the  creation  of 
Spenta  Mainyu.*- 

The  superlative  forms,  Spentotema  Mainyu,  or  Spenishta 
Mainyu,  meaning  the  Most  Holy  Spirit,  are  spoken  of  as  Ahura 
Mazda's  attributes.*^ 


"  Ys.  I.  II ;  Yt.  12.  32. 
"  Ys.  25.  5. 
"  Yt.  15.  5,  42,  57;. 
*'  Yt.  19.  43,  44. 


"Yt.  13.  12,  13. 

"  Yt.  15.  2,  3. 

*»  Ys.  I.  I ;  37.  3;  Yt.  I.  I. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
AMESHA  SPENTAS 

The  archangels.  The  higher  celestial  beings  that  had  not 
expressly  acquired  a  distinguishing  name  of  their  own  in  the 
Gathas  are  now  designated  as  the  Amesha  Spentas,  or  '  Holy 
Immortal  Ones.'  They  are  thus  addressed  for  the  first  time 
in  the  Haptanghaiti,  or  the  Yasna  of  Seven  Chapters,  the  earliest 
prose  composition  of  the  Avestan  period,  though  still  made  in 
the  Gathic  dialect.^  They  are  all  created  by  Ahura  Mazda.^ 
Plutarch  refers  to  them  in  his  work.-  With  the  godhead  at 
the  pinnacle  they  form  a  heptad  and  are  henceforth  mentioned 
as  the  seven  Holy  Immortal  Ones.*  Severally  they  are  both 
male  and  female.^  Vohu  Manah,  Asha  Vahishta,  and  Khshathra 
Vairya  are  conceived  of  as  masculine  beings,  though  neuter  in 
grammatical  gender;  Spenta  Armaiti  is  pictured  as  a  feminine 
concept;  and  Haurvatat  and  Ameretat  are  treated  as  masculine 
beings,  though  their  grammatical  gender  is  feminine.  In  a  para- 
mount degree  they  are  all  of  one  thought,  one  word,  and  one 
deed;  their  father  and  lord  is  the  creator  Ahura  Mazda.®  They 
look  into  one  another's  souls ;  "^  and  they  each  have  their  special 
Fravashi.^  Garonmana,  the  highest  heaven,  is  their  dwelling- 
place,  and  there  they  occupy  the  golden  seats  that  belong  to 
spirits  in  the  realm  supernal.®  Their  sacred  names  are  the  most 
mighty,  most  glorious,  and  the  most  victorious  of  the  spells.^" 
To  utter  their  name  is  synonymous  with  efficacy  and  power. 
Yasht  2  is  devoted  to  their  praise. 

Their  attributes.  The  Amesha  Spentas  are  the  ever-living 
and  the  ever-helping  ones ;  ^^  they  are  the  wise  ones,  and  good 

'Ys.  39-  3;  42.  6,  'Yt.  13.  84;  19-  17- 

"  Yt.  I.  25.  °  Ys.  23-  2. 

^  Is.  et  Os.  47.  "  Vd.  19.  32,  36. 

*Yt.  2.  13;  13.  83;  19-  16.  "Yt.  I.  3. 

Ys.  4.  4;  24.  9;  39-  3;  Vsp.  9-  4-  "  Ys.  4-  4;  39-  3;  Vsp.  9.  4;  11.  12. 


Yt.  13.  83;  19.  16. 


87 


^ 


88  AMESHA  SPENTAS 

rulers ;  ^^  It  is  they  that  are  the  shining  ones,  of  efficacious 
eyes,  exalted,  mighty,  valiant,  imperishable,  and  righteous.^* 
They  are  the  makers,  rulers,  fashioners,  guardians,  protectors, 
and  preservers  of  the  creation  of  Mazda,^*  and  Mazda  has  given 
them  beautiful  forms. ^^ 

Their  work.  The  archangels  hold  their  celestial  councils  on 
the  heights  of  the  heavens.^®  From  there  they  come  down  to 
the  seven  zones  into  which  the  world  was  divided  according  to 
the  Avesta,^'^  and  rule  over  the  realms  of  earth. ^^  They  are 
naturally  invited  to  the  sacrifice/*^  and  offerings  are  placed  by  the 
devout  for  them  to  accept.^"  The  faithful  pray  that  the  Amesha 
Spentas  may  visit  and  enjoy  sacrifices  in  their  houses,^^  for 
shining  is  the  path  by  w^hich  they  descend  to  earth  to  receive 
the  libations  offered  in  their  honour.^^  Even  Mithra  as  a  god- 
like embodiment  sacrificed  unto  them,^^  and  for  him  they  have 
made  a  dwelling.^*  They  are  of  one  accord  with  the  sun ;  ^^  and 
they  gather  together  the  light  of  the  moon  and  pour  it  down 
upon  the  earth.-''  They  are  the  divine  ones  who  help  in  bring- 
ing about  the  final  restoration  of  the  world. -^  Each  of  them 
will  smite  his  opponent  at  the  time  of  the  resurrection.^^ 

Zarathushtra  the  first  among  mortals  to  sacrifice  unto 
the  Amesha  Spentas.  ]\Iazda  asks  his  prophet  to  invoke  the 
Amesha  Spentas,  even  though  he  could  not  behold  them  with 
his  eyes.^^  Zarathushtra  follows  Mazda's  behests ;  and  he  is  the 
first  man  to  invoke  them,^°  a  spiritual  predecessor  having  been 
the  archangel  Sraosha.  For  that  reason  the  faithful  sacrifice  unto 
the  Amesha  Spentas  with  love  and  joy,^^  and  pray  to  them  for 
help  and  protection.^^  Their  praise  and  sacrifice  form  one  of  the 
cardinal  articles  of  faith. ^^  Hence  it  is  that  we  find  in  the  oft- 
repeated   formulas   of   the   Later   Avestan   texts   that    sacrifice, 

"  Ys.  2.  2;  6.  i;  24.  9;  25.  4;  35.  i;  58.  5;  70.  i;  Vsp.  8.  i;  11.  12;  Vd. 
19.  9. 

'' Ys.  26.  3;  Yt.  13.  82. 

'*Ys.  58.  S;  Yt.  19-  18;  Vd.  19.  9  '"Yt.  10.  51. 

'°Yt.  13.  81.  "Yt.  10.  51;  13.  92. 

^'G.  2.  8.  ='Yt.  7.  3. 

^^Ys.  57.  23;  Yt.  II.  14.  "Yt.  19.  19. 

"  Vd.  19.  13.  ''  Yt.  19.  96. 

^»  Ys.  I.  2.  =•  Vd.  19.  13. 

="  Ys.  4.  2.  '"  Yt.  17.  18. 

"  Ys.  60.  6.  "  Ys.  15.  I ;  Vsp.  6.  i. 

"Yt.  13.  84;  19-  17-  *'Ys.  58.  S. 

"  Yt.  10.  89.  "  Ys.  12.  I. 


AMESHA  SPENTAS  89 

invocation,  propitiation,  and  glorification  are  offered  to  them 
for  the  furtherance  of  prosperity  in  the  world  of  righteousness.^* 
Nor  must  it  be  forgotten  that  in  his  benedictions  upon  King 
Vishtaspa  the  prophet  invokes  upon  his  royal  patron  the  blessings 
of  brightness,  glory,  riches,  swift  horses,  and  good  sons  that  come 
as  a  benign  gift  from  the  archangels.^^  The  ceremonials  per- 
formed in  honour  of  the  Amesha  Spentas  by  unholy  priests 
delight  them  not;^''  on  the  other  hand,  distress  and  harm  flee 
from  that  worshipper  whose  homage  has  reached  them."  When 
their  loving  votary  performs  his  devotions  and  finds  his  spirit 
inflamed  by  their  love,  he  forthwith  dedicates  to  them  the  very 
life  of  his  body  and  all  his  earthly  possessions.^,^ 


VoHu  Manah 

His  place  in  the  Later  Avesta.  As  the  first  in  the  creation  of 
Ahura  Mazda,  Vohu  Manah  retains  his  pre-eminent  position  in 
the  Later  Avestan  period.  He  occupies  his  seat  next  to  Ahura 
Mazda  in  the  celestial  council.  The  other  archangels  live  in 
him.'^*'  In  some  cases  Vohu  Manah  does  not  stand  as  the  name 
of  the  archangel,  but  simply  connotes  its  ordinary  meaning  good 
mind  or  thought.  In  fact,  as  in  the  Gathas,  there  is  a  subtlety 
of  meaning  that  makes  it  difficult  to  decide  in  translation  whether 
the  concept  or  the  archangel  is  intended.  In  Vd.  19.  20,  23-25 
the  term  designates  a  good  man  or  even  clean  clothes. 

Vohu  Manah  guards  wisdom.  Vohu  Manah's  khratii,  or 
wisdom,  which  occurs  in  the  Gathas,  is  now  classified  in  the  later 
texts  into  two  distinct  types,  asna  khratu,  '  innate  wisdom,'  and 
gaoshosruta  khratu,  '  acquired  wisdom.'  These  two  types  of 
knowledge  are  spoken  of  as  objects  worthy  of  sacrifice  and 
propitiation.^"  Ahura  Mazda  accordingly  asks  Zarathushtra  to 
seek  knowledge  all  the  night  long,*^  because  the  true  priest  and 
his  disciples  work  by  day  and  by  night  for  the  increase  of  knowl- 

"  Ys.  52.  4- 

»=  Yt.  24.  46. 

'°  Yt.  10.  139;  24.  12. 

"  Yt.  I.  24. 

"  Ys.  II.  18;  14.  I,  2;  Vsp.  5.  2. 

"  Vsp.   II.   12. 

"Ys.  22.  25;  25.  6;  Yt.  2.  i ;  Sr.  i.  2,  29;  2.  2,  29. 

"  Yt.  24.  41- 


go  AMESHA  SPENTAS 

edge.*2    Vohu  Manah  rejoices  in  man's  endeavour  to  wrest  from 
Nature  her  secrets. 

His  work.  When  the  Evil  Spirit  first  attacked  creation 
Vohu  Manah  came  to  its  succour.*^  Zarathushtra  asks  Ahura 
Mazda  to  teach  him  the  laws  of  both  the  worlds,  so  that  men 
following  his  precepts  may  act  in  such  a  way  that  Vohu  Manah 
may  come  to  them.^*  It  is  through  his  medium  that  the  devout 
can  aspire  to  reach  Ahura  Mazda ;  *^  and  on  that  account  he  is 
implored  to  further  bodily  life.^«  It  is  said,  moreover,  that 
he  is  more  a  possession  of  the  hard-working  man  of  the  world, 
who  has  married  and  toils  for  his  family,  than  of  that  of  the 
celibate  or  the  ascetic.*'  Vohu  Manah's  function  of  guarding  the 
animal  kingdom  is  not  emphasized  in  the  Avestan  texts. 

Vohu  Manah  welcomes  the  righteous  souls  to  paradise.  When 
the  blessed  ones  cross  the  great  bridge  and  come  up  to  the 
gates  of  heaven,  this  premier  angel  rises  from  his  golden  throne 
and  in  gracious  words  receives  the  newcomers.*^ 

In  the  final  conflict  between  the  hosts  of  the  rival  powers, 
he  will   smite  his  adversary  Aka   Manah.*'^ 

AsHA  Vahishta 

His  righteousness  remains  the  basic  doctrine  of  Zoroastrian- 
ism  during  the  Later  Avestan  period.  Ahura  Mazda  is  the 
righteous  lord  of  righteousness.^'^  He  has  created  Asha  Vahishta, 
or  Best  Righteousness,"  who  is  the  greatest,  best,  fairest,  the 
radiant,  the  all-good  archangel.^^  It  is  Asha  Vahishta  that  is  the 
smiter  of  disease,  death,  fiends,  sorcerers,  noxious  creatures,  and 
whose  adversary  is  Druj,  Deceit  or  Wickedness.^^  Zarathushtra 
for  that  reason  proclaims  the  glory  of  Asha  Vahishta,  through 
whom  the  way  to  the  abode  of  the  archangels,  paradise,  becomes 
easy.^*  This  celestial  personification  gives  joy  to  the  souls  of  the 
righteous  dead.^^  It  is  through  him  that  the  devotee  aspires  to 
behold  and  reach  Ahura  Mazda.^^    There  is  one  path  alone  that 

"Vd.  4-  45 ;  i8.  6.  ""G.  5-  5- 

*'  Yt.  13.  IT.  "  Yt.  I.  25. 

Yt.  I.  20.  "  Ys.  13.  8;  37.  4;  Yt.  13.  PL  92- 

Ys.  36.  4.  "  Yt.  3.  14-17. 

Ys.  68.  23.  "  Yt.  3-  3. 

Vd.  4-  48.  ""  TdPr.  72-74. 

Vd.  19.  31.  °°  Ys.  60.  12. 

Yt.  19.  9<5. 


44 

4S 
49 
4T 
48 
4S 


AMESHA  SPENTAS  91 

leads  to  the  eternal  life,  and  that  is  the  Path  of  Righteousness." 
The  faithful  invoke  the  holy  waters  of  Ahura  Mazda  for  the 
attainment  of  this  path  which  is  the  most  upright  and  which 
leads  to  the  paradise  of  the  righteous.^®  Atar,  the  genius  of 
fire,  leads  to  this  straightest  path  all  those  who  lie  not  unto 
Mithra.^*  Referring  to  the  guilty  persons  who  have  undergone 
punishments  for  the  crime  of  assaulting  other  persons,  the 
Vendidad  ®°  admonishes  sinners  to  walk  in  the  path  of  right- 
eousness in  future.  '  The  path  of  righteousness  '  or  '  the  most 
upright  path  '  of  the  Avestan  texts  closely  resembles  '  the  right 
path  '  mentioned  in  the  Old  Persian  Inscriptions.  Darius  exhorts 
men  not  to  leave  the  path  which  is  right. •'^ 

Zarathushtra  was  the  first  among  mortals  to  praise  this  em- 
bodiment of  holiness ;  ^-  and  King  Vishtaspa,  by  adopting  the  new 
faith,  helped  to  open  the  way  for  righteousness  in  this  world.^* 
Good  thoughts  of  the  mind,  good  words  of  the  tongue,  and  good 
deeds  of  the  hand  make  man  ashavan,  or  righteous.®*  He  ob- 
tains purity  when  he  cleanses  his  own  self  with  them.®^  The 
friendship  of  Asha  in  this  world  and  the  next  is  the  most 
coveted  boon  for  all  time.*'®  It  is  easy  to  understand  why  Asha 
is  invoked  to  enter  the  house  of  the  faithful  to  smite  the  wicked 
Druj." 

Righteousness  is  the  highest  riches.  Man,  we  are  told, 
pines  for  the  riches  of  the  earth  and  often  strives  to  obtain 
the  boon  of  wealth  even  by  unlawful  means.  On  the  contrary,  he 
should  rather  aspire  to  a  store  of  righteousness,  which  is  the 
real  and  permanent  wealth.  When  a  man  starts  on  a  journey, 
he  takes  provisions  and  stores  with  him.®^  He  takes  care  to  pro- 
vide himself  with  more  goods  than  are  his  actual  requirements.*'^ 
How  sad  it  is,  then,  that  he  should  not  furnish  himself  now, 
while  it  is  time,  with  the  spiritual  stores  of  righteousness  for  the 
great  journey  which  he  will  have  one  day  to  undertake  and  from 
which  he  will  never  return.'^"  In  the  end  cattle  are  dust ;  gold  and 
silver  are  dross ;  even  the  body  of  man  mingles  with  clay. 
Righteousness  alone  does  not  mingle  with  the  dust,  but  sur- 
vives the  bodily  death  of  man.'^^     There  comes  a  day  or  there 


"Ys.  72.  II. 

"=  Yt.  13.  88. 

"  Ys.  60.  S. 

"  Ys.  68.  13. 

"Yt.  13.  99;  19-  93- 

"  Aog.  41. 

"  Yt.  10.  3. 

-  TdFr.  57-59. 

'»  Aog.  42-44. 

"•Vd.  4.  43. 

"Vd.  10.  19. 

'"  Aog.  46-47. 

"  NR.  a.  6. 

"  Ys.  40.  2. 

"  Aog.  84. 

92  AMESHA  SPENTAS 

comes  a  night,  when  the  master  leaves  his  cattle,  when  the  cattle 
leave  their  master  and  the  soul  leaves  the  body.''^  But  right- 
eousness, which  is  the  greatest  and  the  best  of  all  riches,  accom- 
panies the  soul  after  death."  Riches  and  fortune  one  cannot 
have  for  oneself,  nor  can  one  maintain  form  and  beauty  of  body 
forever  at  will;  but  everyone  can  embrace  righteousness  and 
make  it  his  own  in  this  world.^*  The  best  man  is  the  righteous 
man.  He  is  not  heroic  who  is  not  heroic  in  righteousness,  he 
is  not  valiant  who  is  not  valiant  in  righteousness."  Life  in 
departing  leaves  the  richest  empty  in  the  midst  of  his  abundance, 
if  he  lacks  righteousness. 

The  world  of  righteousness,  as  against  the  world  of 
wickedness.  The  universe  is  divided  into  two  hostile  camps. 
The  righteous  form  a  distinct  world  by  themselves,  and  they 
are  the  favourite  ones  of  Ahura  Mazda.  The  men  who  have 
chosen  to  naturalize  themselves  as  the  citizens  of  the  Kingdom 
of  Wickedness  form  a  separate  world  of  their  own.  The  texts 
in  the  Later  Avesta  speak  of  the  ashaono  sti,  '  the  world  of  the 
righteous  man,'  as  opposed  to  the  drvato  sti,  '  the  world  of  the 
wicked  fiend.'  It  is  the  faithful  that  work  for  the  furtherance 
of  the  one,  and  for  the  destruction  of  the  other.^*'  The  man  that 
is  holy  rejoices  in  the  prosperity  of  the  former,  just  as  he  exults 
in  the  adversity  of  the  latter."  He  who  does  not  gladden  a 
righteous  person  who  comes  within  his  gates  has  no  lasting  or 
true  joy.  To  be  charitable  to  such  a  one  is  to  attain  paradise.^^ 
But  again,  he  rejoices  not  who  helps  a  wicked  person  that 
clamours  for  help.  To  help  such  an  evil  one  is  equivalent  to 
hindering  righteousness,  inasmuch  as  he  is  wicked  who  is  a 
source  of  goodness  to  the  wicked.'^*  A  gift  bestowed  upon  a 
righteous  man  is  the  best  of  all  libations,^"  but  not  so  when  it 
is  made  to  a  wicked  one.  Refusing  food  to  a  demon-worshipper 
or  a  wicked  one  does  not  make  one  guilty.®^  The  faithful  pray 
that  a  righteous  king  may  rule  over  them,  but  that  a  wicked  one 
may  be  baffled  and  defeated.^^ 

Bodily  purity  contributes  to  righteousness.    Next  to  life 
the  second  best  good  for  man  is  purity.^^     This  is  the  dictum 

"  Aog.  51.  "  Ys.  52.  4-  "  Nr.  84. 

"  Aog.  52.  "  Ys.  8.  8.  "  Nr.   18. 

'*  TdFr.  95-98.  "  TdFr.  107-109.  "  Ys.  8.  6. 

"TdFr.  103,  104.  "Ys.  71.  13;  TdFr.  110-112.         "' Vd.  5-  21. 


AMESHA  SPENTAS  93 

of  the  Gathas,  and  it  is  most  consistently  developed  through- 
out the  entire  subsequent  literature.  It  is  the  favourite  theme 
on  which  the  Zoroastrian  theologians  are  never  tired  of  ex- 
patiating. Purity  of  body  is  the  most  salient  feature  in  the  life 
of  a  Zoroastrian.  It  is  rated  higher  than  anything  else.  The 
problem  of  cleanness  and  uncleanness,  purity  and  impurity,  has 
evoked  an  extensive  literature.  The  tenets  of  the  faith  in  this 
respect  have  been  worked  out  into  a  science  of  health.  Bodily 
purity  is  indispensable  to  purity  of  mind.  Cleanliness  of  body 
is  an  essential  requisite  for  saintliness.  The  clean  in  body  find 
it  easy  to  be  pure  in  mind,  and  the  pure  in  heart  have  just  a  step 
to  take  to  be  holy  in  spirit. 

Asha  Vahishta  comes  to  be  regarded  as  the  healing  spirit 
of  bodily  diseases.  As  the  many  kinds  of  healers  restore  bodily 
health  by  herbs  and  drugs,  and  remove  the  tumours  and  cancers 
by  knife  and  implements,  so  there^are  healers  that  heal  through 
righteousness  or  by  the  holy  spell.  We  shall  speak  later  on,  in 
its  proper  place,  of  the  art  of  healing  by  means  of  the  holy  spell. 
The  Yasht  which  receives  its  name  after  Asha  Vahishta  is  in  fact 
mostly  consecrated  to  Asha  Vahishta's  associate  Airyaman,  the 
guardian  genius  of  human  health.  Of  all  the  healers,  the  Avestan 
texts  announce  the  spiritual  healer  as  the  best  one;  it  is  he  that 
heals  the  faithful  through  his  own  righteousness  by  means  of 
the  utterance  of  the  holy  spell.^* 

Asha  Vahishta's  relation  to  fire.  In  the  Avestan  liturgy 
Asha  Vahishta  is  invoked  together  with  Atar,  the  genius  of 
fire.®^  Angra  Mainyu,  as  the  devil,  exclaims  that  Zarathushtra 
burns  him  with  Asha  Vahishta,  as  if  with  molten  metal.^"'  This 
allegory  of  burning  and  annihilating  the  Evil  Spirit  through  right- 
eousness is  taken  literally  in  the  later  period  of  Zoroastrianism, 
where  Asha  Vahishta  is  identified  at  times  with  the  household 
fire  on  the  hearth.  Such  identification  in  the  realms  of  matter  and 
of  spirit  serves  only  to  bring  more  into  prominence  the  main 
tenets  of  Zoroaster's  teachings  in  regard  to  Asha. 

Khshathra  Vairya 

The  change  that  the  concept  undergoes.  The  Gathic 
Khshathra  now  takes  vairya,  '  desirable,'  as  its  standing  epithet, 

«''Yt.  3.  6;  Yd.  7-  44-        "  Ys.  i.  4;  Sr.  i.  7;  2.  7.        *' Yt.  17.  20. 


94  AMESHA  SPENTAS 

and  hence  both  the  terms  combine  to  form  the  name  of  this 
archangel.  This  archangel  of  Ahura  Mazda  ^''  gradually  loses  the 
abstract  side  of  his  nature  in  the  Avestan  texts.  In  the  Gathic 
prose  texts  of  the  Yasna  Haptanghaiti  the  abstract  idea  of  the 
Divine  Kingdom  occurs  but  once.  In  this  solitary  passage  the 
devout  long  for  the  everlasting  kingdom  of  Ahura  Mazda.®^ 
Throughout  the  Younger  Avestan  texts  this  abstract  idea  of  the 
spiritual  kingdom  recedes  into  the  background,  or  rather  is  en- 
tirely lost  sight  of.  True,  Khshathra  Vairya  is  still  occasionally 
invoked  by  name  along  with  the  other  celestial  beings,  but  his 
higher  function  as  the  genius  of  the  sovereign  power  in  the 
abstract  entirely  falls  out. 

Khshathra  Vairya  does  not  stand  so  much  for  the  celestial 
riches  of  the  Divine  Kingdom  in  the  world  hereafter,  as  for 
earthly  wealth.  Materially  Khshathra  Vairya  is  the  genius  of 
metal,  and  his  activity  is  now  limited  to  guarding  this  concrete 
creation  of  God.  Khshathra  Vairya  and  the  molten  metal  are 
invoked  side  by  side.®''  In  fact  he  very  soon  loses  even  this 
trait  of  his  work;  he  is  identified  with  metal  and  just  becomes 
metal  itself.^" 

As  the  genius  of  metal,  Khshathra  Vairya  is  the  lord  of 
earthly  riches.  He  generously  bestows  his  possessions  on  the 
poor.  He  is  sometimes  invoked  in  company  of  marezhdika, 
'  mercy,'  ^^  that  is  styled  the  protector  of  the  poor.  We  can 
trace  this  relation  of  Ivhshathra  Vairya  as  the  merciful  helper  of 
the  poor  to  the  Aliuna  Vairya  formula. 

Spenta  Armaiti 

Her  position  in  the  Avesta.  As  devotion  personified  on  the 
abstract  side,  and  as  the  genius  of  the  earth  on  the  concrete  side, 
Spenta  Armaiti,  '  Holy  Devotion,'  retains  her  dual  nature  in 
the  Younger  Avesta.  Through  the  medium  of  Devotion  the 
faithful  aspire  to  approach  Ahura  Mazda,^^  and  in  the  Confes- 
sion of  Faith  the  pious  follower  of  Zarathushtra  chooses  Devo- 
tion and  yearns  to  make  her  his  own.^^  Upon  lifting  up  his 
devotional    prayer    the    house-lord    prays    that    she    may    enter 

"Yt.  I.  25.  "Yt.  2.  7;  Sr.  I.  4;  2.  4. 

'"Ys.  41.  2.  *'Ys.  13.  6;  39-  5- 

"  Vsp.  20.  i;  Yt.  2.  7;  Sr.  i.  4;  2.  4.  "  Ys.  12.  2. 
•"Yt.  10.  125;  Yd.  9.  10;  16.  6;  17.  6. 


AMESHA  SPENTAS  95 

his  house  and  thus  rout  heresy.®*  The  malice  and  harm  of  the 
wicked  could  be  averted  through  her  help."^  She  is  the  mother 
of  Ashi  Vanghuhi,  or  the  genius  of  Good  Piety,''®  while  Rata, 
the  guardian  spirit  of  generosity,  is  invoked  with  her.^^ 

From  her  position  as  the  female  genius  of  the  earth,®''  Armaiti 
very  soon  becomes  the  earth  herself.  She  is  now  more  frequently 
spoken  of  as  the  earth  than  as  the  genius  of  the  earth.®®  She 
wears  the  star-studded  sky  as  her  garment."® 

Haurvatat  and  Ameretat 

The  dual  archangels.  These  two  Amesha  Spentas  are  closely 
united  to  each  other  and  generally  occur  together  side  by  side."^ 
Haurvatat  has  a  Yasht  consecrated  to  him,  being  invoked  as  the 
lord  of  seasons  and  years. ^®-  Ahura  Mazda  created  Haurvatat 
for  the  help,  joy,  comfort,  and  pleasure  of  the  righteous  ones.^®* 
The  man  who  invokes  the  name  of  Haurvatat  as  one  of  the 
archangels  is  able  to  smite  the  legion  of  demons.^®*  The  two, 
Haurvatat  and  Ameretat,  together  form  the  reward  of  the  right- 
eous after  death, "^  while  fire  is  invoked  to  grant  the  blessings 
of  Haurvatat  and  Ameretat  to  its  supplicants  for  help  and  joy.^®^ 
The  two  archangels  together  will  smite  the  demons  of  hunger  and 
thirst  during  the  final  conflict  between  the  forces  of  good  and 
evil."^ 

Instances  where  the  two  archangels  materially  personify  water 
and  plants  are  not  found  in  the  Later  Avestan  texts.  Examples, 
however,  are  not  wanting,  as  is  well  known,  in  which  they  occur 
as  meaning  specifically  water  and  plants  in  their  healing  effect 
on  mankind.^®® 

'*  Ys.  60.  s- 

°»Yt.  I.  28. 

•-Yt.  17.  16. 

"^Sr.  I.  5;  2.  5- 

''  vd.  3. 35. 

"'  Ys.  16.  10;  Yt.  24.  50;  Vd.  2.  10,  14,  18;  18.  51,  64. 
""  Yt.  13.  3. 

'"  Ys.  I.  2;  3.  I ;  4.  I ;  6.  17;  7.  26;  8.  I ;  58.  7;  70.  2;  71.  12;  Vsp. 
9.  5;  Yt.  I.  25;  10.  92. 

^"^  Yt.  4.  o;  Sr.  i.  6;  2.  6. 

"'Yt.  4.  I. 

"*  Yt.  4.  2. 

""Yt.  I.  25. 

"'  Ys.  58.  7- 

"'  Yt.  19.  96. 

"'  Ys.  3.  I ;  4.  I ;  8.  I. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

YAZATAS 

The  Zoroastrian  angels.  Next  in  rank  to  the  Amesha 
Spentas  come  the  Yazatas,  literally  meaning  '  the  adorable  ones.' 
If  the  Amesha  Spentas  are  the  archangels  in  Zoroastrian  theology, 
the  Yazatas  are  the  angels.  They  are  numbered  by  hundreds  and 
by  thousands/  by  tens  of  thousands  and  by  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands, nay  even  more.^-^  About  forty  only,  however,  are  mentioned 
in  the  extant  Avestan  texts.  Plutarch  refers  to  twenty-four.* 
The  prominent  Yazatas  mentioned  by  name  in  Ys.  i6.  4-6;  Sr.  i. 
8-30;  2.  8-30,  closely  correspond  to  the  number  mentioned  by 
the  Greek  writer.  Several  of  the  Yazatas  have  individually 
consecrated  to  them  a  Yasht,  or  hymn  of  praise,  which  narrates 
the  doings  and  functions  of  its  respective  genius.  Besides  the 
Yashts  that  form  a  special  biographical  literature  of  these  minor 
divinities,  the  whole  Iranian  literature  is  filled  with  the  record 
of  their  achievements.  Ahura  Mazda  himself  is  a  Yazata,  even 
as  he  is  an  Amesha  Spenta.  He  is  the  greatest  and  the  best 
Yazata.^ 

History  of  the  Yazatas.  Some  of  these  Yazatas  are,  as  we 
have  already  seen,  pre-Zoroastrian  and  go  back  to  the  Indo- 
Iranian  period;  but  with  the  exception  of  Sraosha,  Atar,  and 
Ashi,  they  do  not  appear  in  the  Gathas,  though  frequent  enough 
in  the  Later  Avesta.  In  fact  they  permeate  all  the  later  texts, 
and  form  an  indissoluble  part  of  the  Zoroastrian  pantheon.  We 
shall  group  them  under  two  headings  and  distinguish  those  that 
are  common  to  the  Indians  and  the  Iranians  from  those  that 
are  purely  Iranian. 

Indo-Iranian :  Mithra,  Airyaman,  Haoma,  Verethraghna, 
Parendi,  Rata,  Nairyosangha,  Apam  Napat,  Ushah,  and  Vayu. 

Iranian:  Atar,  Ardvi  Sura  Anahita,  Hvarekhshaeta,  Maong- 

hah,  Tishtrya,  Drvaspa,  Sraosha,  Rashnu,  Raman,  Daena,  Chisti, 

^  Yt.  6.  I.  -  Is.  et  Os.,  47- 

'  Vsp.  8.  I.  '  Ys.  16.  I ;  Yt.  17.  16. 

96 


2.S 


YAZATAS  97 

Erethe,  Rasanstat,  Ashi  Vanghuhi,  Arshtat,  Asman,  Zamyat, 
Manthra  Spenta,  Damoish  Upamana,  and  Anaghra  Raocha. 

Characteristics  of  the  Yazatas.  Like  their  celestial  elders, 
the  Amesha  Spentas,  the  Yazatas  impersonate  abstract  ideas  and 
virtues,  or  concrete  objects  of  nature.  Many  of  them  preside 
over  both  spiritual  and  material  phenomena.  The  nature  Yazatas 
Hvarekhshaeta,  Mithra,  Maonghah,  Ardvi  Sura,  Atar,  and  others 
personify  the  sun,  light,  moon,  water,  and  fire.  At  times  their 
names  designate  merely  the  objects  of  nature  that  they  personify. 
This  simultaneous  treatment  of  the  dual  aspect  of  these  angels 
is  frequently  found  in  one  and  the  same  paragraph  and  makes 
it  difficult  to  distinguish  the  actual  impersonations  from  the  per- 
sonified objects.  Very  often  praise  and  sacrifice  are  offered 
more  to  the  sun,  light,  moon,  water,  and  fire  as  such  than  to 
the  Yazatas  presiding  over  them.  We  learn  from'  Herodotus 
that  the  Persians  sacrificed  unto  the  sun,  moon,  earth,  fire,  water, 
and  winds.® 

Instances  are  not  wanting  in  which  a  Yazata  begins  his 
career  as  the  personification  of  some  one  particular  virtue  or  an 
object  of  nature,  but  with  the  lapse  of  time  either  substitutes  for 
it  some  other  or  widens  his  sphere  of  activity  and  takes  some 
new  virtue  in  the  abstract  or  some  new  object  of  nature  under 
his  guardianship  in  addition  to  his  original  duty.  Some  of  the 
Yazatas  are  lacking  in  real  individuality.  Once,  at  least,  even 
the  prophet  Zarathushtra  is  called  a  Yazata. '^ 

The  functions  of  the  Yazatas.  Various  are  the  boons  that 
the  Yazatas  give  unto  man.®  By  hundreds  and  by  thousands 
they  gather  together  the  light  of  the  sun  and  pour  it  upon  the 
earth.®  Men  invoke  them  with  sacrifices,^^  and  in  return  they 
help  men.  They  have  a  share  of  invocation  and  sacrifice  offered 
unto  Ahura  Mazda,  who  is  not  jealous  of  the  oblations  thus  dedi- 
cated to  his  subordinates.  They  are  the  beneficent  ones,^^  full 
of  glory  and  healing.^^  Apart  from  the  general  work  which 
the  Yazatas  perform  as  a  class  of  spiritual  beings,  they  are 
severally  allotted  different  functions,  which  we  shall  notice  under 
their  respective  headings. 

Offerings  and  sacrifices  to  the  Yazatas.    Libations  of  milk 

•  Herod,  i.  131.  "  Yt.  6.  i ;  Ny.  i.  11.        "  Ys.  25.  8. 

'  Ys.  3.  21.  ^"Yt.  8.  II.  ''Ny.  3.  11. 

'  Ys.  65.  12,  14. 


98  YAZATAS 

and  Haoma,  of  the  Draonah,  or  wafer-bread,  and  of  meat  are  the 
objects  generally  dedicated  to  the  angels,  who  always  demand 
that  man  shall  not  forget  their  invocation  and  praise.  They  are 
ever  eager  to  protect  and  help  man  in  peace  or  war,  provided 
that  man  propitiates  them  with  offerings  and  sacrifices.  To 
Anahita,  as  celestial  guardian  of  the  waters,  to  Drvaspa,  who 
protects  cattle,  and  to  Vayti,  the  wind,  as  we  shall  see  below,  a 
hundred  horses,  a  thousand  oxen,  and  ten  thousand  sheep  are 
consecrated  in  sacrifice  by  some  of  the  early  kings  and  heroes. 
Much  of  what  the  Greek  authors  write  regarding  such  Iranian 
sacrifices  in  antiquity  has  its  parallels  in  the  Later  Avestan  texts. 
Some  of  the  angels  seek  consecrated  cooked  repasts  of  cattle  and 
birds  as  offerings  from  their  votaries.  Generally  the  victims  used 
in  sacrifice  were  horses,  camels,  oxen,  asses,  stags,  sheep,  and 
birds,  if  we  may  judge  from  Athenaeus  4.  p.  145.  Xerxes  is  said 
to  have  sacrificed  a  thousand  cows  to  the  Trojan  Athena,  while 
the  Magi  offered  at  the  same  time  libations  to  the  manes  of  the 
heroes. ^^  When  that  Achaemenian  monarch  came  to  the  river 
Strymon,  the  Magi  offered  a  sacrifice  of  white  horses.^* 

Speaking  about  the  mode  of  sacrificing  animals  to  the  divini- 
ties, Herodotus  tells  us  that  the  sacrificial  beast  was  taken  to  a 
clean  place  by  the  sacrificer,  who  covered  his  head  with  wreaths  of 
myrtle.  When  the  victim  was  slaughtered  and  the  pieces  of  meat 
were  placed  on  grass,  the  Magi  consecrated  them  by  chanting  the 
theogony." 

Division  of  the  Yazatas  according  to  their  grammatical 
gender.  The  Yazatas  are  both  males  and  females,  or  rather  the 
personifications  of  virtues  and  ideas  that  are  in  gender  masculine 
and  feminine.  There  is  no  distinction  between  these  male  and 
female  divinities.  Both  of  them  are  on  the  same  level,  occupy 
the  same  place  of  honour,  and  receive  the  same  amount  of 
homage.  The  gentle  work  becoming  to  the  fair  sex  is  allotted  to 
the  female  angels,  and  they  are  as  powerful  and  awe-inspiring 
in  their  own  sphere  of  activity  as  their  fellow-workers  of  the 
opposite  sex  are  in  theirs.  The  female  angels  are :  Ushah,  Zam, 
Ardvi  Sura  Anahita,  Drvaspa,  Daena,  Chisti,  Arshat,  Erethe, 
Rasanstat,  Ashi  Vanghuhi,  Parendi,  and  Rata.  All  others  are 
of  the  male  sex. 

Group  Yazatas.    The  usual  manner  of  sacrificing  unto  the 

"Herodotus,  7.  43.  '*  Herod.  7.  113.  "Herod,  i.   132. 


YAZATAS  99 

angels  is  to  invoke  each  one  separately  by  his  name,  or  in  com- 
pany of  his  comrades  and  co-workers,  or  in  joint  pairs.  On  this 
last  point  we  shall  speak  anon  under  a  separate  heading.  Some- 
times all  the  angels  are  invoked  in  a  group  under  the  comprehen- 
sive title  of  vispe  Yazata,  '  all  Yazatas,'  ^®  closely  corresponding 
to  the  Vedic  vishz'e  Devas,  '  all  Divinities.'  In  fact  an  entire 
book  of  the  ritual  is  dedicated  to  the  various  spiritual  lords 
under  the  title  Visparat,  literally  meaning  '  all  lords.' 

Dual  Yazatas.  A  particular  feature  common  to  the  Avestan 
and  Vedic  religions  is  the  arrangement  of  certain  divinities  in 
pairs,  who  are  revered  together.  As  some  of  the  Yazatas  guard 
more  than  one  abstract  virtue  or  impersonate  more  than  one  nat- 
ural phenomenon,  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find  one  Yazata  entering 
into  partnership  with  various  Yazatas  according  to  the  nature 
of  his  work.  For  instance,  Mithra  as  the  sovereign  lord  of 
wide  pastures  forms  a  pair  with  Ahura;  as  the  lord  of  light,  he 
works  in  consort  with  Hvarekhshaeta,  the  genius  of  light ;  as  the 
lord  of  truth,  he  works  in  company  with  Rashnu;  and  as  the 
lord  of  plenty  and  prosperity,  he  enters  into  a  comradeship  with 
Raman.  The  more  prominent  of  the  dual  divinities  are  Ahura- 
Mithra,"  Hvarekhshaeta-Mithra,"  Mithra-Rashnu,^^  Mithra- 
Raman,-°  Rashnu-Arshtat,^!  Raman-Vayu,"  Daena-Chisti." 
Ashi  Vanghuhi-Parendi,2*  and  Asman-Zamyat.^^  Sometimes  a 
special  attribute  of  one  Yazata  is  extended  to  his  associate,  and 
they  share  the  characteristic  qualities  and  functions  of  each  other. 

Classification  of  the  Yazatas.  The  Avestan  texts  generally 
speak  of  two  distinct  orders  of  the  Yazatas.  They  are  mainyava, 
'  spiritual,  or  celestial,'  and  gaethya,  '  material,  or  terrestrial.'  ^^ 
We  are  not,  however,  informed  what  particular  Yazatas  are 
grouped  under  each  of  the  two  classes.  A  very  recent  gloss  in 
the  Pahlavi  version  of  the  Avestan  Litany  Khurshid  Nyaish  ex- 

'•Ys.  I.  19;  2.  18;  Yt.  II.  17;  17-  19;  WFr.  5.  i. 
'' Ys.  I.  11;  2.  11;  Ny.  I.  7;  2.  12;  Yt.  10.  113,  145. 
'"Yt  6;  Ny.   i.  2. 
'•  Vsp.  7.  2;  Yt.  13.  47,  48;  14.  47;  24.  52;  Vd.  4.  54. 

Ys.  2.  3;  25.  4;  Vsp.  2.  9;  Vd.  3.  i;  G.  i.  2,  7,  8;  Sr.  i.  16;  2.  16. 

Ys.  I.  7;  2.  7;  Yt.  10.  139;  12.  40;  Sr.  I.  18;  2.  18. 

Ys.  16.  5 ;  Sr.  i.  21 ;  2.  21. 

Ny.  I.  8;  2.  8;  Sr.  i.  24;  2.  24. 

Ys.  13.  i;  Yt.  8.  38;  10.  66;  24.  8;  Sr.  i.  25;  2.  25. 
'"  Ys.  I.  16;  16.  6;  42.  3. 
"Ys.  I.  19;  3.  4;  7.  4;  16.  9;  22.  27;  25.  8;  71.  s;  Yt.  6.  4;  19.  22; 
Ny.  I.  9;  WFr.  i.  2. 


20 

92 
IS 
34 


100  YAZATAS 


plains  that  the  terrestrial  angels  are  such  as  Fire,  Ardvi  Sura's 
Waters,  the  Wind,  the  Sun,  the  Moon,  and  the  Earth.  These 
are  so  called,  adds  the  commentator,  because  they  can  be  seen  by 
man  with  his  eyes,  whereas  the  celestial  ones  cannot  thus  be 


seen,^'^ 


In  the  following  tabulation  we  shall  class  the  Yazatas  under 
two  main  divisions.  Those  Yazatas  who  commonly  work  for 
one  and  the  same  virtue,  or  preside  over  some  one  particular 
phenomenon,  will  be  classed  under  the  sub-titles  of  such  a  virtue 
or  a  phenomenon  common  to  them.  Thus,  for  example,  all  the 
Yazatas  that  guard  rectitude  will  be  treated  in  one  group,  and 
those  that  preside  over  light  will  be  dealt  with  together.  In  cases 
where  a  Yazata  presides  over  more  than  one  virtue,  we  shall  class 
this  particular  angel  under  the  most  prominent  and  characteristic 
of  his  virtues. 

Celestial  Yazatas 

Divine  wisdom:  Daena,  Chisti,  and  Sraosha. 

Rectitude:  Mithra,  Rashnu,  Arshtat,  Erethe,  and  Rasanstat. 

Victory:  Verethraghna. 

Felicity :  Raman. 

Charity:  Rata. 

Peace :  Akhshti. 

Spell :  Manthra  Spenta,  Dahma  Af  riti,  Damoish  Upamana. 

Health :  Airyaman,  Haoma. 

Riches :  Ashi  Vanghuhi,  Parendi. 

Cattle:  Drvaspa,  Geush  Urvan. 

Terrestrial  Yazatas 

Light :  Hvarekhshaeta,  Maonghah,  Anaghra  Raochah,  Asman, 
Ushah;  (star- Yazatas)  Tishtrya,  Vanant,  Satavaesa,  and 
Haptoiringa. 

Wind:  Vayu. 

Fire:  Atar,  Nairyosangha. 

Water :  Ardvi  Sura  Anahita,  Apam  Napat,  and  Ahurani. 

Earth:  Zam. 

"  CL  Dhalla,  Nyaishes,  p.  35,  New  York,  1908. 


YAZATAS  loi 


Daena 


Religion  deified.  One  of  the  least  personified  Yazatas  is 
Daena,  even  though  she  is  a  female  divinity  of  religion.  Very- 
little  is  known  of  her  personality  more  than  the  fact  that  she  is 
the  genius  of  the  Holy  Law  of  Mazda.  She  has  a  Yasht  as- 
signed to  her  which  is  called  after  her  name ;  and  yet  even  this  is 
entirely  consecrated  to  Chisti,  who  is  her  usual  associate.  The 
offerings  are  made  to  her  companion,  and  various  boons  are 
asked  from  her.  Daena  has  no  share  in  this.  She  is  simply 
mentioned  by  name  in  invocation  along  with  Chisti.  Even  here 
she  is  assigned  a  secondary  ^lace,  for  Chisti  takes  precedence 
over  her.  Throughout  the  Avestan  texts  in  which  the  two  are 
mentioned  together,  Daena  stands  second  in  the  order  of  invoca- 
tion.^^   Ashi  Vanghuhi,  or  Good  Piety,  is  her  sister.-'' 

Chisti 

Divinity  of  religious  wisdom.  Unlike  her  partner,  just  men- 
tioned, Chisti,  the  divinity  of  religious  wisdom,  has  a  person- 
ality that  is  sharply  defined.  She  is  the  most  upright,  holy, 
bearing  libations,  wearing  a  white  garment  as  her  emblem.^" 
Zarathushtra  longs  to  own  her  and  devoutly  implores  her  to  grant 
him,  among  other  things,  the  clearest  vision.^^  The  prophet's 
noble  consort  Hvovi,  as  well  as  the  itinerant  priests  and  the  lords 
of  the  country,  are  among  her  supplicants,  asking  various  boons, 
which  she  grants  to  those  who  are  pure  in  heart.^^ 

Sraosha 

His  personality.  Sraosha  is  one  of  the  few  angels  whose 
prominence  increases  with  the  lapse  of  time.  Two  Yashts  are 
dedicated  to  him,  the  latter  of  which  occurs  also  in  the  Yasna. 
He  is  the  angel  whose  name  has  reached  afar  and  whose  very 
body  is  the  holy  spell. ^^     He  was  the  first  in  the  entire  creation 

"  Ys.  22.  24;  25.  5;  Sr.  i.  24;  2.  24;  Ny.  i.  8. 

"Yt.  17.  16. 

"Yt.  10.  126. 

"Yt.  16.  2-13. 

"  Yt.  16.  15,  17,  19. 

••Ys.  3.  20;  4.  23;  Yt.  13.  85;  Vd.  18.  14. 


102  YAZATAS 

to  worship  Ahura  Mazda,  the  Amesha  Spentas,  and  the  two 
protectors.^*  He  chanted  the  five  holy  Gathas  of  Zarathushtra 
in  order  to  propitiate  the  archangels.^'  His  dwelling  is  supported 
by  a  thousand  pillars,  is  self-lighted  from  within,  and  star- 
spangled  from  without. ^^  He  drives  forth  in  a  heavenly  chariot 
drawn  by  four  white  shining  horses  that  are  fleeter  than  the 
winds,  fleeter  than  the  rain,  fleeter  than  the  winged  birds,  and 
fleeter  than  the  well-darted  arrow. ^'^  The  sacred  formula  Ahuna 
Vairya  and  the  other  consecrated  spells  are  his  weapons. ^^  His 
sister  is  Ashi  Vanghuhi,  or  Good  Piety  ;^^  and  unto  him  Haoma 
offered  sacrifice.*"  Owing  to  his  victorious  courage  and  wisdom 
the  archangels  come  down  to  the  seven  zones. *^ 

Sraosha's  attributes.  He  is  the  strongest,,  the  sturdiest,  the 
most  active,  the  swiftest,  and  the  most  awe-inspiring  of  youths.*^ 
He  is  the  wielder  of  the  club,  which  is  levelled  against  all  de- 
moniacal powers,  especially  against  the  fiendish  Druj.  He  is 
mighty,  swift,  powerful,  terrible,  and  heroic.*^  He  is  a  formida- 
ble foe  to  the  wicked.  He  is  not  afraid  of  any  one,  but  the 
demons  tremble  at  his  sight  and  flee  to  the  region  of  darkness.** 
His  mace  does  havoc  on  them.  Himself  unconquerable,  he  is  the 
conqueror  of  all. 

The  w^ork  of  Sraosha.  Mazda  has  revealed  his  religion  to 
Sraosha,  who  now  teaches  it  to  the  world  of  humanity.*'^  This 
was  the  prime  function,  as  we  have  seen  above,  that  the  Gathas 
allotted  him.  The  Younger  Avestan  texts  speak  more  of  his 
all-absorbing  work  of  combating  the  demons.  In  the  Gathas 
he  preached  devout  submission  to  Mazda's  mandates,  in  the 
Later  Avesta  he  does  the  fighting  with  the  rebels  that  revolt 
against  divine  authority.  Sleep  has  forsaken  his  eyelids  since 
the  two  spirits  Spenta  Mainyu  and  Angra  Mainyu  created  the 
world.*®  With  an  uplifted  club  he  guards  the  world  after  sunset 
from  the  onslaughts  of  Aeshma,  his  constant  rival,  and  against 
all  the  forces  of  wickedness.*^  Three  times  during  the  day  and 
three  times  during  the  night  the  holy  Sraosha  descends  on  earth 

"  Ys.  57.  2.  "  Ys.  57-  23. 

"  Ys.  57-  8.  "  Ys.  57.  13. 

"  Ys.  57.  21.  **  Ys.  57.  II,  12. 

"Ys.  57.  ^1,  28.  **Ys.  57-  18;  Yt.  II.  13. 

"  Ys.  57.  22.  "  Ys.  57-  24;  Yt.  11.  14. 

"Yt.  17.  16.  *'Ys.  57.  17;  Yt.  II.  12. 

*'Ys.  57.  19.  "Ys.  57.  10,  16;  Yt.  II.  10,  II. 


YAZATAS  103 

to  smite  the  evil  spirit  Angra  Mainyu,  Aeshma,  and  the  demons 
of  Gilan  and  Mazandaran ;  *^  and  he  returns  victorious  from 
these  battles  to  the  celestial  assembly  of  the  archangels.^®  The 
Fire  of  the  hearth  calls  Sraosha  for  help  in  the  third  part  of 
the  night,  for  the  demon  Azi  threatens  to  extinguish  his  life.'" 
Sraosha,  thereupon,  wakes  up  the  cock  Parodarsh,  his  ally,  who 
lifts  up  his  voice  to  rouse  the  world  of  humanity,  and  warns  it 
against  the  mischief  of  Bushyansta,  who  lulls  it  to  sleep. ^^  With 
his  terrible  mace  levelled  at  the  head  of  Druj,  he  enters  into 
controversy  with  her,  and  extorts  from  the  demoness  her  secret 
devices. ^^  As  the  teacher  of  religion  unto  men  he  moves  about 
spreading  religious  lore  at  his  will  over  the  whole  material 
world.^^ 

Sraosha's  gifts.  He  is  implored  to  give  strength  to  the  spans 
of  the  warriors'  steeds  in  battle,  soundness  of  body,  and  power 
to  meet  the  adversary.^*  The  poor  look  to  him  for  support.'" 
The  faithful  entreat  him  to  guard  them  in  both  the  worlds. '* 
The  Mazdayasnians  are  asked  to  sacrifice  unto  him.'^  Evils  of 
all  kinds  vanish  from  the  house,  clan,  town,  and  country,  wherein 
the  righteous  man  thinking  good  thoughts,  speaking  good  words, 
and  doing  good  deeds,  welcomes  and  sacrifices  unto  Sraosha.'* 

MiTHRA 

His  place  in  the  Avestan  pantheon.  Of  all  the  Indo-Iranian 
divinities  that  have  found  their  place  in  the  Zarathushtrian 
theology,  Mithra  is  the  most  prominent  figure.  He  is  associated 
with  the  oldest  common  cult  of  Persia  and  India  as  shown  in 
the  sacred  books  of  the  two  countries.  He  becomes  one  of  the 
most  popular  Yazatas  of  Iran.  Nay,  more,  he  is  the  most  con- 
spicuous angel  of  the  Younger  Avestan  period.  One  of  the 
longest  Yashts  celebrates  his  greatness.  He  is  the  most  mascu- 
line, exacting,  implacable,  and  relentless  of  all  the  Yazatas. 
Ahura  Mazda  has  created  him  as  worthy  of  sacrifice  and  prayer 
as  himself.'®  The  description  of  him  in  the  Yasht  that  is  dedi- 
cated in  his  honour  gives  a  vivid  picture  of  the  character  of  the 
pre-Zarathushtrian    divinities    that    were    worshipped    in    Iran. 


*'  Ys. 

57-  31,  32. 

"Vd. 

18. 

30-59.                "  Ys. 

57-  25. 

"  Ys. 

57.  12. 

"Ys. 

57. 

24.                     "  Ys. 

57.  13- 

°°Vd. 

18.  22. 

"Ys. 

57- 

26.                      "  Ys. 

57-  14- 

"Vd. 

18.  23,  24. 

"Ys. 

57- 

10;  Yt.  II.  3.  "Yt. 

10.  I. 

104  YAZATAS 

Mithra  was  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  the  primitive  Ahuras, 
as  he  was  conjointly  worshipped  with  Ahura  Mazda.^"  The 
writer  who  consecrated  Yasht  lo  in  his  honour  was  conversant 
with  the  past  greatness  of  this  divinity,  whose  cult  had  struck  so 
deep  a  root  in  the  popular  mind.  He  certainly  was  unsparing  in 
eulogizing  the  work  of  this  genius  in  the  universe.  The  texts 
sometimes  speak  of  Mithra  in  terms  that  are  usually  applied  to 
Ahura  Mazda,  and  the  latter  himself  is  represented  in  this  par- 
ticular Yasht  as  having  sacrificed  unto  Mithra.®^  The  heptad  of 
the  Amesha  Spentas  having  been  already  complete,  Mithra  is 
not  raised  to  the  rank  of  these  higher  beings,  but  is  assigned  a 
place  among  the  Yazatas.  The  Old  Persian  Inscriptions  of  the 
Achaemenian  kings  mention  a  very  limited  number  of  the  celestial 
beings.  Mithra  occupies  a  prominent  place  among  these  divinities. 
Artaxerxes  Mnemon  and  Artaxerxes  Ochus  invoke  Mithra  for 
help  and  protection. ^^  Plutarch  says  that  the  Persians  call  him 
'  the  mediator,'  for  he  stands  between  Oromazes  and  Areimanios."^ 
Mithra's  attributes.  Of  all  the  Yazatas  that  rule  over  this 
earth,  Mithra  is  the  strongest,  the  most  sturdy,  the  most  active, 
the  most  swift,  and  the  most  victorious."*  Ahura  Mazda  has 
created  him  the  most  glorious  of  all  the  spiritual  Yazatas.*'^  The 
composer  of  the  Yasht  who  sings  to  his  favourite  divinity  ap- 
plies to  him  the  same  honorific  epithets  as  are  applied  to  the 
godhead.  Mithra  is  called  omniscient,  which  is  strictly  speak- 
ing the  epithet  of  Mazda  alone. ''^  He  is  the  strongest  of  the 
strong,  the  sturdiest  of  the  sturdy,  the  most  intelligent  among 
the  divinities,  victorious,  glorious,  keeping  ten  thousand  spies, 
heroic,  all-wise,  and  the  undeceivable  one.®^  He  is  the  greatest 
of  the  Yazatas,  with  body  self-shining  like  the  moon,  and  face 
as  brilliant  as  Tishtrya."^  He  is  heroic  and  the  most  beneficent 
one.''®  He  is  the  lord,  deep,  courageous,  weal-giving,  sitting  in 
the  assembly,  propitiated  when  invoked,  exalted,  of  many  devices, 
with  a  body  made  of  spells,  and  a  warrior  of  powerful  arms.''" 
He  is  the  leader  of  hosts,  of  a  thousand  devices,  lordly,  ruling, 
the  all-knowing  one,'^^  the  one  of  good  renown,  of  good  form 

•»  Ys.  I.  II ;  2.  II ;  Yt.  lo.  113,  I45;  Ny.  I.  7;  2.  12.   "  Yt.    10.   24,   35. 
"'  Yt.  10.  123.  "  Yt.  10.  56,  141. 

'"  Sus.  a;  Ham.  b;  Pers.  4-  "  Yt.  10.   142,  i43- 

Ms.  et  Os.  46.  "Yt.  10.  31,  56. 

*  Yt.  10.  98,  135.  ;;  Yt.  10.  25. 

Yt.  19.  35-  Yt.  10.  35. 


63 


«6 


YAZATAS  105 

and  glory,  granting  boons  and  pastures  at  his  will,  the  giver  of 
good,  of  ten  thousand  spies,  heroic,  and  the  all-knowing."  He 
is  ever  afoot,  watchful,  valiant,  a  dominating  figure  in  the 
assembly,  causing  the  waters  to  flow,  listening  to  appeals,  caus- 
ing the  trees  to  grow,  ruling  over  the  district,  full  of  devices,  a 
creature  of  wisdom.'^^  He  is  the  swiftest  among  the  swift,  gen- 
erous among  the  generous,  valiant  among  the  valiant,  chief  among 
the  chiefs  of  assembly,  increase-giving,  fatness-giving,  flock- 
giving,  kingdom-giving,  son-giving,  life-giving,  felicity-giving, 
and  piety-giving.^*  All  these  are  among  his  attributes.  Mithra 
is  highly  merciful,'^^  the  protector  and  guardian  of  all  creatures."^^ 
He  is  both  good  and  bad  for  men  and  nations.  Peace  and  war 
between  nations  are  from  him.^'^  TVIithra  is  a  warrior  who  has 
sharp  spears,  quick  arrows,'**  and  woe  be  to  the  man  who  has 
offended  him,  as  noted  below. 

Mithra's  associates.  Among  those  who  work  in  unison 
with  Mithra,  Ahura  Mazda  stands  first;  Mithra- Ahura  are  often 
invoked  together  as  a  couple.  Their  union  is  pre-Zarathushtrian 
and  corresponds  to  the  Vedic  Mitra-Varuna.  A  detailed  account 
of  their  joint  activity  is  not  found  in  the  Avesta,  but  they  are 
called  the  two  exalted,  imperishable,  and  holy  ones,'^^  and  are  in- 
voked for  special  help.®°  Mithra  is  again  jointly  invoked  with 
Hvarekhshaeta,  the  angel  presiding  over  the  sun.  This  is  natural, 
because  one  of  the  chief  functions  of  Mithra  is  to  work  as  the 
guardian  of  light.  Of  the  five  Zoroastrian  Nyaishes,  or  litanies, 
two  are  consecrated  to  the  sun  and  Mithra,  and  these  two  are 
always  recited  together.^^  On  the  moral  side  Mithra  protects 
truth.  Consequently  at  an  early  date  he  is  associated  with 
Rashnu,  who  is  the  chief  genius  of  truth. ^^  They  are  united  as 
two  friends.^^  One  of  the  principal  attributes  of  Mithra  is  that 
he  is  the  lord  of  wide  pastures.  In  this  capacity  he  joins  in 
partnership  with  Rama  Khvastra,  who  is  essentially  the  angel 
that  gives  good  pastures  and  happy  dwellings,  together  with 
full  joy  of  life.** 


72 


Yt.  10.  6o.  *"  Yt.  10.  113. 

"Yt.  10.  61.  "Ny.   i;  2;  Yt.  6. 

'*  Yt.  10.  65.  "  Vsp.  7.  2;  Yt.  13.  47,  48;  14-  47;  24.  52;  ' 

"  Yt.  10.  140.  Vd.  4.  54. 

"  Yt.  10.  54.  "  Yt.  10.  79,  81. 

"Yt.  10.  29.  '*  Ys.  2.  3;  25.  4;  Vsp.  2.  9;  Vd.  3.  i;  G.  i. 

"  Yt.  10.  102,  112.  2,  7,  8;  Sr.  i.  16;  2.  16. 

"  Ny.  I.  7;  2.  12;  Yt.  10.  145. 


io6  YAZATAS 

Mithra,  the  genius  of  light.  On  the  material  side  Mithra 
presides  over  light,  especially  over  the  light  that  radiates  from 
the  sun,  with  the  radiance  of  which  he  is  identical  on  the  physical 
plane.  As  the  harbinger  of  light  and  herald  of  the  dawn,  Mithra 
precedes  the  rising  sun  on  the  summits  of  mountains.^^  The  great 
vault  of  heaven  is  therefore  Alithra's  garment.^®  Ahura  Mazda 
and  the  Amesha  Spentas,  being  in  one  accord  with  the  sun,  have 
built  up  for  Mithra  a  dwelling  on  the  great  mountain  Hara  Bere- 
zaiti  (Alburz),  where  neither  night  nor  darkness,  nor  cold  wind 
or  hot  wind,  nor  sickness,  impurity,  death,  and  clouds  can  ever 
reach.^^  From  this  elysian  abode  Mithra  surveys  the  whole  uni- 
verse at  a  glance.  Sleepless  and  ever  wakeful,  he  watches  and 
spies  the  doings  of  men  as  an  infallible  sentinel  of  heaven.  He 
has  posted  eight  of  his  comrades  as  scouts  on  the  celestial  watch- 
towers  to  spy  upon  men's  doings.**^  After  the  sun  has  set,  Mithra 
traverses  the  world  all  around,  and  surveys  all  that  is  between 
earth  and  the  heavens.*^  Ahura  Mazda  consequently  has  ordained 
that  Mithra  should  watch  from  on  high  over  the  entire  moving 
world.^°  The  heat  of  Mithra  it  is,  accordingly,  that  gives 
warmth  and  life  to  the  plant  world  and  bestows  fertility  upon 
this  earth.  IMithra,  as  a  guardian  genius  in  the  celestial  realm, 
therefore,  superintends  the  vast  expanse  of  the  universe,  be- 
cause he  is  constantly  spoken  of  as  having  a  thousand  ears  and 
ten  thousand  eyes.*^^  The  brilliant  sun  is  the  lord  of  yonder 
heavens,  who  with  his  infinite  rays  of  light  pervades  the  whole 
world.  Mithra  furthermore  receives  in  the  Avesta  the  standing 
epithets  dainghu-paiti,  '  the  lord  of  countries,'  and  vouru- 
gaoyaoiti,  '  of  wide  pastures.'  His  light  is  the  dispeller  of  dark- 
ness and  of  all  the  sin  and  evil  concomitant  with  it.  Nothing 
is  secret  from  Mithra's  penetrating  gaze.  He  it  is  that  is  the  un- 
deceivable  one.^^ 

Mithra,  the  inveterate  foe  of  falsehood.    Yet  after  all,  the 

greater  and  more  important  work  of  Mithra  lies  in  the  abstract 

sphere.     At  a  very  early  date  Mithra  was  styled  the  warder  of 

truth.      Light  is   synonymous   with   truth,   as    darkness   is   with 

falsehood.     Mithra  being  primarily  the  lord  of  light,  it  was  but 

a  step  from  the  physical  to  the  moral  sphere  that  he  should 

"  Yt.  10.  13 ;  Vd.  19.  28.  "  Yt.  10.  95. 

"'  Yt.  13.  3-  "''  Yt.  10.  103. 

"  Yt.  10.  50,  51.  ''  Yt.  10.. 

*'  Yt.  10.  45.  "  Yt.  10.  24,  31,  56,  60,  61,  82,  141. 


YAZATAS  107 

be  depicted  as  impersonating  truth.  From  the  divine  activity 
of  Mithra,  as  portrayed  in  the  Avestan  texts,  we  gather  more 
information  of  his  aggressively  active  crusade  against  falsehood 
than  of  his  work  in  upholding  truth.  In  his  warring  capacity  of 
lord  of  hosts,  Mithra  works  more  than  all  else  to  deal  a  de- 
structive blow  to  the  demon  of  falsehood,  thereby  strengthening 
the  realm  of  truth. 

To  speak  untruth  was  a  heinous  sin.  Truth  was  a  paramount 
virtue  among  the  ancient  Iranians.  It  was  regarded  as  every- 
thing, it  was  religion.  On  this  very  account  we  see  human  evil 
collectively  focused  in  the  Avesta  as  the  druj,  '  Lie,'  which 
corresponds  to  drauga,  in  the  Old  Persian  Inscriptions  of  the 
Achaemenian  kings,  a  conception  almost  like  that  of  the  devil. 
Herodotus  writes. that  one  of  the  first  things  that  every  Per- 
sian child  was  taught  was  to  speak  the  truth.°^  Lying  was  most 
detested.^*  The  testimony  of  the  Avesta  also  is  that  the  liar 
brings  death  to  his  country."^  Lying  unto  Mithra  brings  to  the 
offender  the  sin  of  being  a  deceiver  of  Mithra.  The  faithful 
is  exhorted  never  to  lie,  for  Mithra  is  unforgiving  towards 
liars.  Neither  the  lord  of  the  house,  nor  the  lord  of  the  clan, 
nor  the  lord  of  the  town,  nor  the  lord  of  the  country  should 
ever  lie  unto  this  celestial  being.^**  He  is  the  protector  and 
guardian  of  these  lords,  only  so  long  as  they  lie  not  unto  him.^^ 
If,  however,  they  commit  such  a  sin,  ]\Iithra  is  angered,  and 
destroys  house,  clan,  town,  and  the  country,  along  with  their 
masters  and  nobles.'*^  Nor  can  these  culprit  lords  escape  him, 
for  he  overtakes  them,  no  matter  how  swiftly  they  may  run.^^ 
The  man  of  little  faith  who  thinks  that  he  can  evade  Mithra  and 
indulge  in  falsehood  is  mistaken ;  ^"^  to  such  a  one  Mithra  gives 
neither  strength  nor  vigour,  glory  nor  reward,"^  but  on  the 
contrary,  he  inflicts  dire  punishment.  Into  the  hearts  of  all  such 
he  strikes  terror,  taking  away  the  strength  of  their  arms,  fleet- 
ness  from  their  feet,  the  sight  from  their  eyes,  and  the  hearing 
from  their  ears ;  ^°-  it  is  he  that  hurls  down  their  heads  as  he 
deals  them  death. ^°^ 

Mithra  the   guardian  of  contracts.    Ahura   Mazda   enjoins 

"Herod,  i.  136.  "  Yt.  10.  80.  '»' Yt.  10.  62. 

"  Herod.  I.  138.  '"  Yt.  10.  18.  ""  Yt.  10.  23,  48,  63. 

"^  Yt.  ID.  2.  "'  Yt.  10.  20.  '"'  Yt.  10.  Z7- 

'"Yt.  10.  17.  '°°Yt.  10.  105. 


io8  YAZATAS 

upon  Zarathushtra  not  to  break  the  contract  that  is  entered  into 
with  the  righteous  or  with  the  wicked,  for  Mithra  stands  for 
both  the  righteous  and  the  wicked."*  In  his  role  of  genius  of 
light  he  guards  the  sanctity  of  oaths,  and  the  word  mithra  in 
the  Avesta  is  frequently  used  as  a  common  noun,  meaning  '  con- 
tract.' ^"^  For  that  reason,  he  who  violates  the  oath,  whether  it 
be  with  a  believer  or  a  non-believer,  feels  the  visitations  of  the 
stern  angel's  wrath.  The  crime  of  the  one  who  thus  violates 
a  contract  is  called  '  M ithra-druj ,'  '  deceiving  Mithra.'  Such  a 
criminal  is  heavily  punished,  and  his  guilt  falls  upon  the  shoulders 
of  his  kinsmen  for  years  in  the  next  world,  making  them  an- 
swerable for  it  by  punishment."^  The  ethics  of  thus  holding  a 
man's  family  and  kinsmen  responsible  for  his  guilt  seems  to  be 
a  relic  of  the  primitive  type  of  group  morality. 

Mithra  as  a  war  divinity.  Incidental  allusion  has  been  made 
above  to  Mithra  as  the  lord  of  hosts.  For  that  reason  it  is  easy 
to  comprehend  the  fact  that  warring  nations  invoke  Mithra  for 
help  before  going  into  battle;  and  the  lord  of  hosts  sides  with 
that  army  which  excels  in  offering  sacrifice."^  When  Mithra 
marches  out  amid  the  hostile  armies  on  the  battlefield,  he  throws 
confusion  into  the  camp  of  the  enemy  that  has  offended  him ;  "^ 
and  breaks  asunder  their  lines  of  battle,  striking  terror  in  their 
entire  array."^  Though  the  enemy  use  arrows  and  spears, 
swords  and  maces,  they  nevertheless  miss  the  mark  in  every 
case,"^  and,  all  the  while,  Mithra  rushes  destructively  from  a 
thousand  directions  against  the  foes."^  The  adversaries  who 
have  lied  unto  him  he  kills  by  fifties  and  hundreds,  by  hundreds 
and  thousands,  by  thousands  and  tens  of  thousands,  by  tens  of 
thousands  and  myriads.^^-  Confusing  their  minds,  he  shatters 
their  limbs,  and  breaks  their  bones  asunder,"^  at  the  same  time  as 
he  throws  down  their  heads.^"  He  enters  the  battlefield  in  per- 
son, and  levels  his  club  at  both  the  horse  and  the  rider."^ 

Mithra's  chariot.  Mithra  goes  forth  on  his  daily  round 
through  the  heavens  and  upon  the  earth  driving  in  a  celestial 
car  that  rolls  upon  one  golden  wheel,  the  sun,  with  a  shining 

'"  Yt.  10.  2.  ""Yt.  10.  39-40. 

'°°Yt.  10.  116,  117;  Vd.  4.  2-16.         "'Yt.  10.  69. 
'"'Vd.  4.  5-10.  "'Yt.  10.  43. 

'"  Yt.  10.  8,  9.  "' Yt.  10.  72. 

'°*Yt.  10.  48.  "*  Yt.  10.  37. 

'°*  Yt.  10.  36.  ''"  Yt.  10.  loi. 


YAZATAS  109 

axle.^^®  Ahura  Mazda  made  this  chariot  of  heavenly  substance 
and  inlaid  it  with  stars."'^  Like  Sraosha's  vehicle  it  is  drawn 
by  four  white  stallions  that  eat  celestial  food  and  are  undying, 
shining,  and  spiritual.^^^  When  Mithra  drives  on  aloft  over 
the  seven  zones  he  is  escorted  on  the  left  and  the  right,  in  front 
and  from  behind,  by  Sraosha;  Nairyosangha,  Ashi  Vanghuhi, 
Parendi,  Nairya  Ham-Vareti,  Kingly  Glory,  the  sovereign  sky, 
Damoish  Upamana,  Rashnu,  Chisti,  Atar,  and  the  Fravashis.'^^ 
With  bows  and  arrows,  spears  and  clubs,  and  with  swords  and 
maces  placed  by  thousands  in  his  chariot,  this  divine  war  lord 
plunges,  mace  in  hand,  into  the  field  of  battle,  smiting  and  kill- 
ing the  wicked  that  have  been  false  to  him.^^o  Even  Angra 
Mainyu  and  the  fiendish  demons  flee  away  in  terror  before 
Mithra.^2^ 

Mithra's  wrath.  Mithra  bemoans  with  uplifted  hands  be- 
fore Ahura  Mazda  the  disregard  and  negligence  of  men  who 
do  not  invoke  him  by  his  name,  even  though  he  protects  and 
guards  them.^'^  jf  ^e  were  invoked  by  men,  he  says,  as  other 
angels  are,  he  would  come  at  the  appointed  time  for  help  to  the 
righteous.^"  He  looks,  therefore,  for  votaries  who  will  sacrifice 
unto  him,  so  that  in  his  might  he  may  shower  gifts  upon  them.^^* 
Happy  indeed  is  the  man  who  thus  gains  the  good-will  of 
Mithra,  for  this  divine  angel  henceforth  bestows  upon  him 
radiance  and  glory,  soundness  of  body,  riches  and  weal,  offspring, 
and  sovereignty.^'^  But  woe  is  to  him  that  is  sparing  in  Mithra's 
invocation.  For  such  a  wight  calamity  is  in  store,  as  Mithra 
is  terrible  to  deal  with  when  his  righteous  wrath  is  kindled. 
Mithra,  when  angered  or  disregarded  in  worship,  inflicts  poverty 
and  wretchedness  upon  the  offender,  depriving  him  also  of  his 
offspring  and  power.^^^  The  house,  clan,  town,  and  country  in 
which  an  insult  is  offered  to  Mithra  are  levelled  to  the  ground.^" 
The  wise  therefore  pray  that  they  may  never  come  across 
Mithra's  wrath,^-^  and  invocation  is  the  best  means  of  appeasing 
the  vengeful  angel. 

^^°  Yt.  10.  136.  '"Yt.  10.  55,  74- 

"''Yt.  10.  143.  '=*Yt.  10.  108. 

"»Yt.  10.  68,  125.  '"Yt.  10.  108,  109. 

"'Yt.  10.  52,  66,  100,  126,  127.  '''Yt.  10.  no,  III. 

^^°Yt.  10.  96,  127-132.  '"Yt.  10.  28,  87. 

>"  Yt.  10.  97,  134-  '"  Yt.  10.  69,  98,  135. 
"=  Yt.  10.  54- 


no  YAZATAS 

Sacrifices  to  Mithra.  The  faithful  devoutly  invoke  Mithra 
by  his  name  with  libations,  and  implore  him  to  come  and  sit  at 
the  sacrifice,  to  listen  to  the  invocation,  to  be  pleased  with  it, 
to  accept  it,  and  to  place  it  with  love  to  their  credit  in  paradise. ^^' 
The  Alazdayasnians  are  to  sacrifice  unto  Mithra  with  cattle 
and  birds,  along  with  Haoma  and  libations.""  The  faithful  who 
desires  to  drink  the  holy  libations  consecrated  in  honour  of 
Mithra  is  required  to  undergo  certain  penances.  He  has  to  wash 
his  body  for  three  days  and  three  nights  and  undergo  thirty 
stripes,  or  he  might  wash  his  body  for  two  days  and  two  nights 
and  undergo  twenty  stripes,  as  the  occasion  requires.  Any  one 
who  has  no  knowledge  of  the  ritual  is  prohibited  from  partaking 
of  the  sacred  libation.^^^  In  these  observances  we  can  recognize 
the  beginnings  of  the  later  Mithraic  rites  and  mysteries  for  which 
the  cult  of  Mithra,  centuries  afterwards,  became  famous.  Mithra 
demands  that  his  sacrifice  shall  be  performed  with  out-and- 
out  devotion.  Ahura  Mazda  says  unto  Zarathushtra  that  if 
a  sacrifice  is  offered  unto  Mithra  by  a  holy  and  righteous 
priest,  Mithra  will  be  satisfied,  and  will  straightway  come  to  the 
dwelling  of  the  supplicant,  but  if  it  is  performed  by  an  unholy 
priest,  it  is  rejected,  no  matter  how  long  has  been  the  sacrifice, 
nor  how  many  bundles  of  the  sacred  twigs  are  consecrated."^ 
Mithra  promptly  comes  to  help  when  he  is  satisfied. ^^^  He 
brings  sovereignty  for  him  who  has  piously  offered  him  liba- 
tions,^^* and  gives  him  a  good  abode  with  desirable  possessions. ^^^ 

Mithra's  boons.  Many  indeed  are  the  boons  asked  for  from 
Mithra.  He  is  invoked  to  come  to  the  faithful  for  help,  freedom, 
joy,  mercy,  healing,  victory,  well-being,  and  sanctification.^^®  The 
masters  of  the  house,  clan,  town,  and  country  invoke  him  for  help, 
so  do  the  poor,  when  wronged,  look  to  him  for  the  redress  of  their 
grievances.^ ^"  The  husbandman  solicits  that  rich  pasture  may 
never  fail  him.  Horsemen  sacrifice  unto  him  even  from  on 
horseback  and  beg  swiftness  for  their  teams,  vigour  for  their 
bodies,  and  might  for  overthrowing  their  adversaries. ^^^  Neither 
the  spear  of  the  foe  nor  his  arrow  hits  the  man  whom  Mithra 
helps, ^"®   for  he  guards  and  protects   man   from  behind  and   in 


128  Yt. 

10.  31,  ?>2. 

138  Yt 

10. 

87. 

137  Yt. 

10. 

83,  84. 

1.0  Yt. 

10.  1 19. 

134  Yt] 

10. 

16. 

138  Yt. 

10. 

II,  94,  114, 

131  Yt. 

10.  120-122. 

135  Yt. 

10. 

77- 

139  Yt. 

10. 

24. 

13=  Yt. 

10.  137-139- 

136  Yt. 

10. 

5- 

YAZATAS  XII 

front.""  Mithra  furthers  the  possessions  of  man,  he  gives  flocks 
of  cattle,  male  offspring,  chariots,  and  prosperity ;  ^*^  he  is  there- 
fore entreated  to  grant  riches,  courage,  victory,  good  name  and 
fame,  felicity,  v^isdom,  and  strength  to  smite  the  adversaries.^*^ 
Mithra's  help,  it  may  be  added,  is  invoked  for  both  the  worlds.^*^ 

Rashnu 

Personification  of  truth.  This  angel  is  pre-eminently  the 
genius  of  truth.  His  standing  epithet  is  razishta,  '  most  upright.' 
To  adopt  the  phraseology  of  the  Younger  Avestan  texts,  Rashnu 
is  the  most  holy,  the  most  well-shaped,  exalted,  courageous,  the 
most  knowing,  the  most  discerning,  the  most  fore-knowing,  the 
most  far-seeing,  the  most  helping,  the  greatest  smiter  of  thieves 
and  bandits."* 

Rashnu  presides  at  the  ordeal  court.  The  Yasht  conse- 
crated to  Rashnu  deals  mainly  with  the  preparation  of  the  ordeal ; 
and  his  presence  at  such  trials  is  deemed  indispensable.^*^  In 
fact  he  is  the  chief  celestial  judge  who  presides  at  the  ordeal. 
No  specific  habitat  is  assigned  to  Rashnu.  The  officiating  priest 
has  to  invoke  him  to  come  to  the  ordeal  from  whatever  part  of 
the  world  he  happens  to  be  in  at  that  time,  whether  in  one  of  the 
seven  zones  of  the  habitable  world,  or  on  the  great  waters,  or  on 
some  part  of  the  wide  earth,  or  on  the  high  mountains,  or  on  the 
stars  and  the  moon  and  the  sun,  or  in  the  endless  light,  or  even 
in  paradise.^**'  The  man  who  lies  at  the  ordeal  offends  both 
Rashnu  and  Mithra,  and  is  consequently  punished."^ 

We  have  already  seen  how  Rashnu  is  often  invoked  in  com- 
pany with  Mithra,  and  likewise  with  Sraosha ;  in  a  similar  manner, 
as  noted  in  the  next  paragraph,  we  generally  find  Arshtat,  the 
female  personification  of  rectitude,  invoked  alongside  of 
Rashnu.^*^ 


'^''Yt.  10.  46. 
Yt.  10.  28,  30. 
Yt.  10.  33,  34,  58,  59- 
Yt.  10.  93. 
Yt.  10.  126;  12.  5-7. 

See  Dhalla.   The   Use  of  Ordeals  among  the  Ancient  Iranians,  in 
Le  Museon,  vol.   11,  pp.   121-133,  Louvain,   1910. 
^^"Yt.  12.  9-38. 
Vd.  4.  54,  55- 
Ys.  I.  7;  2.  7;  Yt.  10.  139;  12.  40;  Sr.  i.  18;  2.  18. 


141 
142 
143 
144 

145 


147 
148 


112  YAZATAS 

Arshtat 

Divinity  of  rectitude.  Arshtat  is  the  female  genius  of  truth. 
She  does  not  play  any  prominent  part  in  the  Younger  Avestan 
period.  She  co-operates  with  Mithra,  Sraosha,  and  Rashnu  in 
the  judgment  of  the  dead.  Although  the  i8th  Yasht  is  dedicated 
to  Arshtat  and  bears  her  name,  there  is  not  in  it  a  single  mention 
of  her  by  name ;  the  entire  hymn  treats  only  of  the  Aryan  Glory. 
In  two  Sirozah  passages  (i.  26;  2.  26)  Mount  Ushidarena, 
literally  meaning  '  the  keeper  of  intelligence,'  is  invoked  in  com- 
pany with  Arshtat ;  and  tradition  points  to  this  mountain  as  the 
place  where  Zarathushtra  retired  to  meditate  on  the  eternal 
problems  of  life  and  commune  with  the  divine.  As  noted  above, 
Arshtat  is  generally  invoked  with  Rashnu ;  ^^^  and  she  is  called 
the  world-increasing  and  the  world-profiting.^^°  In  one  instance 
she  is  identified  with  the  Mazdayasnian  religion.^^^ 

As  conjectured  by  Foy,^^^  and  established  by  Jackson,^"  after 
a  careful  examination  of  the  Old  Persian  Inscription  on  the 
Behistan  rock  (Bh.  4.  64),  the  name  of  this  angel  occurs  in  the 
very  short  list  of  Zoroastrian  divinities  known  to  the  Achaemenian 
kings. 

Erethe  and  Rasanstat 

Minor  divinities  of  truth.  By  the  names  of  Erethe  and 
Rasanstat  are  designated  two  minor  female  angels  presiding  over 
truth.  Nothing  is  known  about  them  excepting  that  they  are 
invoked  by  name  along  with  Chisti  and  Ashi  Vanghuhi.^' 


154 


Verethraghna 

The  angel  of  victory.  Verethraghna  belongs  to  the  Indo- 
Iranian  divinities.  He  is  one  of  the  most  popular  divinities  of 
the  Iranian  cult.  Verethraghna  impersonates  victory,  and  he 
has  preserved  this  trait  throughout  the  various  epochs  of  Iranian 
religious  thought.     The  Yasht  bearing  his  name  celebrates  his 


148 
150 
ISl 
152 
158 
164 


Ys.  I.  7;  2.  7;  Yt.  10.  139;  12.  40;  Sr.  I.  18;  2.  18. 

Ys.  I.  7;  2.  7;  Vsp.  7.  2;  Yt.  10.  139;  II.  16;  13.  18. 

Vsp.  7.  2. 

KZ.'35".  45 ;  ZDMG.  54-  364,  n.  i. 

Persia  Past  and  Present,  p.  203-205,  New  York,  1906. 

Ys.  I.  14;  Vsp.  9.  4;  Sr.  I.  25. 


YAZATAS  113 

exploits.  As  the  genius  of  victory,  and  created  by  Ahura  Mazda, 
Verethraghna  is  the  best  armed  of  the  spiritual  angels. ^^^  He 
is  the  most  courageous  in  courage,  the  most  victorious  in  victory, 
the  most  glorious  in  glory,  the  most  abounding  in  favours,  the 
best  giver  of  welfare,  and  the  most  healing  in  health-giving.^^'^ 

The  patron  angel  of  the  Iranian  countries.  Verethraghna 
is  one  of  the  national  divinities  of  the  Aryans.  If  the  nation 
sacrificed  unto  Verethraghna  with  libations,  and  the  sacred  twigs, 
and  consecrated  cooked  repast  of  cattle,  either  white  or  of  some 
other  color,  no  hostile  hordes,  no  plague,  nor  evil  of  any  kind 
would  enter  the  Aryan  lands. ^^^  The  sacrifice  is  to  be  offered 
through  righteousness,  and  none  but  the  righteous  should  par- 
take of  the  holy  food  dedicated  to  Verethraghna.  Untold 
calamity  would  befall  the  Aryan  countries  if  the  wicked  should 
have  a  share  in  the  sacred  feast.  In  such  an  event  plagues  and 
foes  would  devastate  the  country  and  the  Aryans  would  be  smitten 
by  their  fifties  and  their  hundreds,  by  their  hundreds  and  their 
thousands,  by  their  thousands  and  their  tens  of  thousands,  by 
their  tens  of  thousands  and  their  myriads.^^^ 

Verethraghna's  work.  The  armies  that  meet  on  the  battle- 
field invoke  Verethraghna  for  victory.  He  favours  that  army 
which  first  seeks  his  help.  The  army  that  secures  his  aid  is  sure 
to  conquer  and  not  be  conquered,  it  smites  and  is  not  smitten.^^^ 
He  breaks  asunder  the  columns  of  the  enemy,  wounds  them, 
shakes  them,  and  cuts  them  to  pieces.^''*'  He  brings  illness  and 
death  into  the  army  that  has  lied  unto  Mithra,  binds  their  hands 
and  feet,  and  deprives  them  of  their  eyesight  and  hearing.^*'^ 
Zarathushtra  sacrificed  unto  Verethraghna,  imploring  from  him 
victory  in  thought,  victory  in  word,  victory  in  deed,  victory  in 
addressing,  and  victory  in  replying.^"-  Verethraghna  imparts  to 
the  prophet  strength  of  the  body  and  powerful  vision  of  the 
eyes.^®^ 

His  metamorphoses.  Verethraghna,  along  with  Dahma 
Afriti  and  Damoish  Upamana,  imports  a  peculiar  aspect  into  the 
Iranian  pantheon,  that  of  assuming  various  shapes  and  manifest- 
ing his  individuality  in  many  forms.  As  the  lord  of  victory  he 
is  ever  ready  to  help  those  who  invoke  him,  and  comes  down  to 

'"  Yt.  14,  I,  6,  etc.         ■»'  Yt.  14.  Si-53.  '"  Yt.  14.  47,  63. 

"'  Yt.  14.  3,  7,  etc.         ^='  Yt.  14.  43,  44-  '"  Yt.  14.  28,  30,  32. 

"'  Yt.  14.  48-SO.  '"  Yt.  14.  62.  ""  Yt.  14.  29,  31,  33' 


114  YAZATAS 

his  votary  under  different  guises.  Ten  of  such  forms  of  Vere- 
thraghna  are  mentioned,  when  he  appeared  to  Zarathushtra. 
The  divinity  successively  assumes  the  form  of  the  wind,  a  bull,  a 
horse,  a  camel,  a  boar,  a  youth,  a  raven,  a  ram,  a  he-goat,  and 
finally  of  a  man.^®*  He  escorts  Mithra  in  the  shape  of  a  boar  to 
smite  those  that  have  lied  unto  the  guardian  of  truth. ^"^ 

Raman 

He  causes  the  joy  of  life.  Another  instance  of  a  hymn  con- 
secrated in  name  to  one  Yazata,  but  wholly  devoted  to  the  praise 
and  glorification  of  another,  is  furnished  by  the  Ram^  Yasht  (15). 
Vayu,  the  genius  of  wind,  is  the  co-labourer  of  Raman,  and  the 
Yasht  treats  of  his  achievements.  Raman  Khvastra  is  the  genius 
of  the  joy  of  life.  The  joy  that  he  imparts  is  not  the  joy 
of  the  spirit,  and  does  not  convey  any  spiritual  significance.  It  is 
the  joy  or  pleasure  pertaining  to  this  life.  Good  abode  and  good 
pastures  that  bring  comfort  and  happiness  in  the  present  life 
are  Raman's  gifts.  Savouriness  of  food  is  from  him.  Rich 
harvest,  fertile  fields,  wide  pasture,  abundant  fodder,  and  thick 
foliage,  are  the  boons  of  Raman  and  his  associate  divinities,  like 
Mithra  and  Vayu.^^*^  In  fact  it  is  Mithra  and  Tishtrya  who  im- 
part this  joy  to  the  abodes  of  the  Aryan  nations. ^"^^  The  waters 
of  Ardvi  Sura  Anahita  are  likewise  invoked  to  grant  joyful  dwell- 
ings for  the  worshippers  of  Mazda. ^*^® 

Rata 

Charity  personified.  This  female  genius  of  charity,  grace,  or 
almsgiving  is  the  close  companion  of  Spenta  Armaiti  with  whom 
she  is  conjointly  invoked  in  the  hymns  of  praise. ^^^  Through  her 
Ahura  Mazda  gives  revvard,^"°  for  he  has  spoken  of  her  with 
express  sanction  to  Zarathushtra,  and  in  obedience  the  prophet 
has  introduced  her  to  humanity.^^^     The  faithful  fervently  pray 


''*  Yt.  14.  2,  7,  9,  II,  15,  17.  19,  23,  25,  27. 
"'  Yt.  10.  70. 

lee 


Ys.  I.  3;  2.  3;  22.  23;  25.  4;  Vsp.  I.  7;  2.  9;  Yt.  10.  146;  Yt.  15; 
Sr.  I.  21 ;  2.  21 ;  Vd.  3.  i ;  G.  i.  7. 
^"Yt.  8.  2;  10.  4. 
'"Ys.  68.  14. 
''"Sr.  I.  5;  2.  5. 
"°Ys.  40.  I. 
"•  Ys.  65.  9. 


YAZATAS  115 

that  the  spirit  of  charity  of  the  religious  devotee^"  may  drive 
away  the  demon  of  stinginess  from  the  house.  It  is  plainly  to  be 
seen  throughout  that  the  prophet  feels  acutely  the  great  hardship 
of  man's  fierce  struggle  to  keep  up  life.  The  poor  live  a  life  of 
constant  struggle  with  poverty  and  distress ;  the  rich  have  to 
succour  them  as  a  duty.  If  one  of  the  faith  approaches  another 
seeking  goods,  or  a  wife,  or  knowledge,  the  man  of  means  should 
help  him  with  goods,  he  should  arrange  for  the  marriage  of  this 
poor  co-religionist,  he  should  pay  for  his  instruction  in  religious 
matters.^^^  It  is  in  every  man's  power  to  practise  charity,  either 
in  thoughts,  or  in  words,  or  in  deeds. 

Akhshti 

The  angel  of  peace.  This  female  divinity  is  peace  personified, 
but  even  though  perfectly  clearly  recognizable  as  such,  she  is 
very  obscurely  outlined  as  to  traits.  She  is  invoked  in  com- 
pany with  Vohu  Manah,  or  Good  Mind,^^*  for  nothing  can  break 
the  inner  peace  in  which  the  spirit  of  a  man  of  good  thoughts 
reposes.    Akhshti  is  usually  called  victorious. ^^° 

The  term  akhshti  occurs  also  as  a  common  noun.  This 
peace  as  well  as  war  lies  in  the  power  of  Mithra  to  bring  upon 
the  country.^'^'^  The  rulers  invoke  Chisti  to  procure  peace  for 
their  countries,^'^  and  the  faithful  pray  that  peace  and  concord 
may  drive  out  discord  and  strife  from  their  abodes.^''* 

Manthra  Spenta 

The  spirit  of  the  spells.  The  Gathas  spoke  of  the  manthra, 
the  sacred  formula,  or  inspired  utterance  of  great  spiritual 
potency,  but  did  not  personify  it.  The  Avestan  texts  do  so,  how- 
ever, under  the  name  Manthra  Spenta,  or  Holy  Formula. 
The  mdnthras  generally  indicate  the  spells  of  magical  charms 
in  the  Younger  Avesta.  Manthra  Spenta,  the  embodiment  of  the 
holy  spell,  is  invoked  along  with  Daena,  the  genius  of  religion  and 
Vohu  Manah's  wisdom.^ "^  As  an  angel  presiding  over  the 
formulas  of  the  faith  he  wards  off  evil,  exorcises  those  possessed 


"'  Ys.  60.  5. 

176   Yt. 

10.  29. 

"»  Vd.  4.  44.       I 

'"Yt. 

16.  19. 

"*  Yt.  2.  I ;  Sr.  I.  2;  2.  2. 

""Ys. 

60.  5. 

"°  Vsp.  7.  i;  Yt.  2.  I,  6;  11.  15; 

'"  Sr. 

I.  29;  2.  29, 

15.  i;  Sr.  I.  2;  2.  2. 

ii6  YAZATAS 

of  the  demons,  and  heals  the  sick ;  he  is  consequently  invoked  to 
heal  the  ninety-nine  thousand  nine  hundred  and  ninety-nine  dis- 
eases created  by  Angra  Mainyu."**  He  is  efficacious  and  the 
most  glorious  one ;  ^^^  and,  like  every  other  angel,  Manthra 
Spenta  has  his  Fravashi."- 

The  potency  of  the  spells.  The  collocation  manthra  spenta 
occurs  more  frequently  in  its  ordinary  meaning  than  as  the  name 
of  the  angel  presiding  over  the  holy  spells.  The  term  manthra 
without  its.  appellative  spenta  is  also  freely  used  to  designate 
the  spell.  There  are  many  such  spells  of  various  degrees  of 
efficacy.  Their  conjuring  efficacy  is  very  great.  They  are  sup- 
posed to  have  inherent  mysterious  power  of  their  own,  and  the 
mere  recital  of  these  magical  charms  produces  marvellous  effects. 
The  mystical  compositions,  as  such,  are  credited  with  some  kind 
of  spiritual  efficacy,  some  superhuman  power ;  and  through  the 
recitation  of  them  man  can  avert  the  baneful  influence  of  the 
demons.  The  holy  spell  is  the  very  soul  of  Ahura  Mazda.^^^ 
Whoso  pronounces  the  names  of  Ahura  Mazda  by  day  and  by 
night,  on  leaving  his  bed,  or  while  retiring  for  sleep,  or  upon 
leaving  his  home  or  his  town,  is  able  to  withstand  the  attacks 
of  the  demons,  and  will  receive  as  much  succour  and  help  as 
a  thousand  men  could  jointly  give  to  one  man.^^* 

The  chief  spells.  Some  of  the  most  excellent,  the  most 
mighty,  the  most  efficacious,  the  most  smiting,  the  most  vic- 
torious, the  most  healing,  the  greatest,  and  the  best  of  the  spells 
are  the  Ahuna  Vairya  formula,  the  Airyaman  Ishya  prayer,  the 
names  of  Ahura  Mazda  and  of  the  Amesha  Spentas.^^^  Saoshyant 
and  his  companions  will  recite  the  Airyaman  Ishya  prayer  at  the 
time  of  renovation  of  the  world.  Through  its  intonation  Angra 
Mainyu  and  his  evil  crew  shall  be  hidden  in  the  earth,  the  dead 
shall  rise  up,  and  Ahura  Mazda  shall  rule  according  to  his 
divine  will.^®^  There  are  other  sacred  formulas  of  great  import- 
ance, such  as  the  Ashem  Vohu  and  Yenghe  Hatam.     These  are 


'"  Vd.  22.  6. 

Ys.  I.  13;  2.  13;  25.  6;  Vsp.  21.  2. 
Yt.  13.  86. 

Yt.  13.  81 ;  Vd.  19.  14. 
Yt.  I.  16-19. 

Yt.  I.  1-3;  3-  5-  6;  II.  3;  WFr.  4.  i. 
1S6  WFr.  4.     See  Haas,  An  Avestan  Fragment  on   the  Resurrection, 
with    translation   and   notes    in    Spiegel   Memorial    Volume,   pp.    181-187, 
Bombay,  1908. 


181 


184 
18S 


YAZATAS  117 

composed  in  the  Gathic  dialect  and  are  of  rare  merit.  They 
are  next  in  importance  only  to  the  most  sacred  formula  of  all,  the 
Ahuna  Vairya,  which  is  spoken  of  in  the  following  paragraph. 

Ahuna  Vairya.  The  greatest  of  all  the  spells,  the  Word  par 
excellence  of  the  Zarathushtrian  theology,  which  is  constantly 
on  the  tongue  of  the  faithful,  is  the  Ahuna  Vairya.  It  is  made 
up  of  twenty-one  words,  every  one  of  which  corresponds  to 
one  of  the  twenty-one  Nasks  which  make  up  the  complete  Holy 
Writ  of  the  Zoroastrians.  It  is  the  quintessence  of  the  entire 
scriptures.  In  reply  to  the  prophet's  inquiry  about  the  origin 
of  this  sacred  formula,  Ahura  Mazda  says  that  before  the 
heavens,  before  the  waters,  before  the  earth,  before  the  ani- 
mals, before  the  trees,  before  the  fire,  before  men,  before  the 
archangels,  before  the  demons,  and  before  the  entire  material 
existence,  Ahuna  Vairya  was.^^''  Ahura  Mazda  pronounced  it 
when  the  world  was  not.^^^  One  correct  recitation  of  it  without 
any  omission  is  worth  the  chanting  of  a  hundred  Gathas,^^^  and 
will  enable  the  devout  to  reach  paradise. ^^°  Of  all  the  sacred 
formulas  that  have  ever  been  pronounced  or  are  now  recited,  or 
which  will  be  recited  hereafter,  this  word  that  the  Lord  God 
has  announced  to  the  holy  prophet  is  the  best.^^^  It  gives  courage 
and  victory  to  the  soul  and  conscience  of  man.^^-  Humanity 
would  redeem  itself  from  death  by  embracing  it  in  the  fulness 
of  faith.^^3 

Zarathushtra  chants  aloud  this  Word  when  the  demon  Buiti 
seeks  his  death,  and  he  puts  the  fiend  to  flight  by  the  mere 
recital  of  it.^^*  With  the  same  word  does  the  prophet  repel  the 
Evil  Spirit  himself,  when  he  comes  to  tempt  him.^^^ 

The  value  of  the  recitation  and  the  intonation  of  the  formula 
is  greatly  impaired  when  it  is  inattentively  chanted  with  errors 
and  omi^pions.^^^  Ahura  j\Iazda  prevents  the  careless  soul  that 
makes  such  mistakes  from  entering  paradise. ^^' 

The  number  of  times  that  the  spells  are  recited.  The 
tenth  Fargard,  or  chapter,  of  the  Vendidad  gives  a  list  of  the 
Gathic  stanzas  which  are  to  be  repeated  twice,  three  times,  and 
four  times  at  the  beginning  of  the  spells  to  repel  evil.     The 


Ys.  19.  1-4.  ^"  Ys.   iQ.   10.  "°  Vd.  19.  9. 

'  Ys.  19.  8.  ""  Yt.  21.  4.  "'  Ys.  19.  5. 

Ys.  19.  5.  '""  Ys.  19.  10.  "'  Ys.  19.  7. 

Ys.  19.  6.  ''*  Vd.  19.  2. 


ii8  YAZATAS 

Airyaman  Ishya  prayer  is  generally  repeated  four  times.  The 
most  frequently  occurring  formulas  that  are  repeated  in  various 
numbers,  as  the  occasion  demands,  are  the  Ashem  Vohu  and  the 
Ahuna  Vairya.  They  are  generally  used  at  the  opening  or  at 
the  close  of  all  prayers.  The  number  of  times  which  they  are 
recited  varies  from  one  to  a  hundred  thousand,  or,  to  be  precise, 
the  following  specific  numbers  are  found  among  the  references  to 
the  different  prayers :  one,  two,  three,  four,  five,  seven,  eight, 
ten,  twelve,  twenty-one,  one  hundred,  two  hundred,  twelve  hun- 
dred, and  a  hundred  thousand. 

Those  privileged  to  recite  the  spells.  The  Manthrans,  or 
chanters,  are  those  who  are  privileged  to  recite  the  spells."^  The 
knowledge  of  the  secret  formulas  is  to  be  zealously  guarded,  it  is  to 
be  imparted  only  to  the  veriest  few  in  the  closest  circle. ^''^  The 
potency  of  such  spells  greatly  lies  in  their  careful  and  accurate 
recitation,  without  omitting  any  part  of  the  prescribed  formulas, 
or  without  violating  the  rigid  rules  of  the  manner  of  chanting. 
.This  requires  that  the  reciter  should  be  well  versed  in  the  art  of 
exorcising,  of  healing,  or  in  any  other  function  he  undertakes  to 
perform  with  the  help  of  the  sacred  spells.  Teaching  a  manthra 
to  an  infidel  is  equivalent  to  giving  a  tongue  to  the  wolf.^°° 

Dahma  Afriti 

She  personifies  the  power  of  benediction.  Each  time  that  a 
righteous  person  offers  sacrifices  unto  this  personification  of  a 
divine  blessing,  she  comes  to  him  in  the  shape  of  a  camel. ^°^ 

Damoish  Upamana 

He  personifies  the  power  of  anathema.  This  embodiment 
of  the  power  to  utter  an  awful  malediction  upon  an^ffender 
against  righteousness  is  generally  mentioned  alongside  of 
Mithra.-"-  When  Mithra  goes  forth  on  his  crusade  against  the 
demons  and  their  followers  throughout  the  seven  zones,  this 
angel,  with  the  dread  power  of  uttering  fatal  imprecations,  ac- 
companies him  in  the  shape  of  a  ferocious  boar.^"^  Further- 
more, when  Ahura  Mazda,  the  supreme  heavenly  judge,  comes 
down  to  attend  the  ordeal  court,  Damoish  Upamana  is  one  of 

""  Ys.  7.  24;  41.  5.        ""  TdFr.  3 ;  Nr.  17.      ""'  Yt.  10.  9,  66,  68,  127. 
"•Yt.  4.  10;  14.  46.      '"TdFr.  64,  65.  '"'Yt  10.  127. 


YAZATAS  119 

those  to  join  among  the  number  of  his  co-adjutors.-°*  He  is 
also  seen  moving  in  the  company  of  the  Fravashis  when  they  go 
out  to  the  battlefield  to  help  their  favoured  army.^°^  The  sacri- 
ficing priest  invites  him  to  attend  the  Yasna-sacrifice.'"*' 

AlRYAMAN 

The  genius  of  health.  This  Indo-Iranian  divinity  originally 
conveys  the  idea  of  comradeship  and  occurs  mostly  in  the  Vedas 
and  casually  in  the  Avesta  in  connection  with  the  wedding  rites. 
The  fifty-fourth  chapter  of  the  Yasna  is  consecrated  to  Airyaman. 
He  is  invoked  to  come  down  to  the  wedding  for  the  joy  of  the 
faithful.^"^  In  regard  to  attributes  given  to  Airyaman  we  may 
add  in  this  connection  that  his  standing  epithet  is  '  the  beloved 
one.' 

But  Airyaman  plays  a  more  prominent  part  in  the  Iranian 
literature  as  the  genius  of  health.  He  is  an  acolyte  to  Asha 
Vahishta,  and  is  invoked  together  with  him.^°^  The  third  Yasht, 
which  bears  the  name  of  Asha  Vahishta,  is,  in  fact,  mostly  de- 
voted to  Airyaman.  Ahura  Mazda  created  this  earth  immune 
from  any  sickness  and  disease,  but  the  Evil  Spirit  introduced 
therein  ninety-nine  thousand  nine  hundred  and  ninety-nine  dis- 
eases.^°^  Ahura  Mazda  accordingly  sends  his  messenger 
Nairyosangha  to  Airyaman  with  the  request  to  go  to  the  world 
with  his  healing  remedies.  Airyaman  quickly  obeys  the  divine 
command  and  begins  his  work.-^°  He  smites  and  drives  away 
all  kinds  of  sickness  and  death,  magic  and  sorcery.-^^  Airya- 
man does  not  heal  by  means  of  herbs  and  drugs,  medicine  and 
surgery,  but  by  the  holy  spells.  In  fact  one  of  the  greatest  of 
such  sacred  formulas,  the  Airyaman  Ishya,  as  we  have  already 
seen,  bears  his  name  and  is  used  to  smite  all  manner  of  disease 
and  deafti.^^2 

Haoma 

The  divinity  of  joint  Indo-Iranian  fame.  One  of  the  most 
distinctive  features  common  to  the  Indo-Iranian  peoples  before 
their  separation  is  the  Haoma-Soma  cult.     The  Avestan  Haoma 

=°*Yt.  12.  4.  ="Ys.  54.  I.  ='»  Vd.  22.  7-20. 

""  Yt.  13.  47-  '-""  Sr.  I.  3 ;  2.  3-  '"  Vd.  22.  21-24. 

"•Ys.  I.  15;  2.  15.  ""Vd.  22.  2,9,  15.  ^''^  Vd.  20.   12. 


120  YAZATAS 

is  identical  with  Vedic  Soma,  and  both  refer  to  the  sacred 
drink  prepared  from  a  special  plant  and  partaken  of  as  a  part 
of  the  ritual  service.  Haoma  has  secured  a  prominent  place  in 
the  Later  Avestan  theology  and  forms  an  essential  part  of  the 
Zoroastrian  liturgy.  Haoma  primarily  is  a  plant  of  this  world, 
from  which  the  drink  was  quaffed  as  a  religious  act,  but  the  idea 
soon  evolves  into  an  angel  of  the  same  name  presiding  over  this 
plant.  The  two  concepts  are  so  closely  interwoven  that  it  often 
becomes  difficult  to  ascertain  whether  the  Haoma  occurring  in 
a  certain  passage  is  the  genius  of  the  plant  of  that  name,  or  the 
plant  itself.  Three  chapters  of  the  Yasna  and  a  Yasht  mostly 
composed  of  excerpts  from  the  Yasna  are  dedicated  to  Haoma. 

Ahura  Mazda  brought  for  Haoma  the  star-bespangled  spirit- 
ual girdle,  that  is,  the  Mazdayasnian  religion.  Girt  with  this  he 
dwells  on  the  top  of  the  mountains,^^^  and  from  these  heights  he 
sacrifices  unto  Drvaspa,  Sraosha,  Mithra,  and  Ashi  Vanghuhi.^^* 

Haoma  pleads  the  greatness  of  his  cult.  He  is  anxious  that 
his  cult,  which  has  been  in  vogue  for  centuries,  be  given  a  due 
place  in  the  new  faith  and  receive  the  sanction  of  the  prophet. 
The  poet  depicts  him  as  approaching  Zarathushtra  for  this  par- 
ticular purpose.  One  morning,  we  are  informed,  Haoma  came  to 
the  prophet  as  he  was  chanting  the  sacred  Gathas  before  the  fire- 
altar,  and  asked  him  to  seek  his  favour  by  consecrating  the 
Haoma  juice  for  libations  and  to  praise  him  as  the  other  sages  had 
praised  him.^^^  In  reply  to  Zarathushtra's  inquiry  Haoma  pro- 
ceeds to  give  instances  of  some  of  the  greatest  of  his  celebrants. 
The  first  among  the  mortals  to  sacrifice  unto  the  angel  Haoma 
by  pounding  the  Haoma  plant  for  libation  was  Vivanhvant,  and 
the  great  benefit  he  derived  therefrom  was  that  the  glorious 
Yima  was  born  unto  him.-^^  Athwya,  Thrita,  and  Pourushaspa, 
the  father  of  the  prophet  himself,  were  among  the  other  promi- 
nent men  who  sacrificed  unto  Haoma.  Their  reward  was  that 
illustrious  sons  were  bom  unto  them.  Thus  Zarathushtra  himself 
was  born  unto  Pourushaspa  because  the  latter  praised  Haoma.^^^ 
Zarathushtra,  the  poet  says,  thereupon  paid  homage  to  the  angel, 
and  proclaimed  his  cult  as  the  most  praiseworthy.^^^ 

Haoma's  titles.    The  standing  epithet  of  Haoma  is  '  far  from 

"' Ys.  9.  26.  "'Ys.  9.  3,  4. 

=  '*Ys.  57-  19;  Yt.  9-  17.  18;  10.  88;  17.  Z7,  38.         '"  Ys.  9.  6-13. 
"»  Ys.  9.  I,  2.  "'  Ys.  9-  16. 


YAZATAS  121 

death.'  He  is  the  powerful  one,  and  rules  according  to  his  will.-^' 
He  is  the  lord  of  knowledge  and  possesses  good  wisdom.^-"  He 
is  the  healing  one,  beautiful,  lordly,  and  of  golden  eyes.^^^ 

His  gifts.  Zarathushtra  invokes  Haoma  and  asks  from  him 
intelligence,  courage,  victory,  health,  increase,  prosperity,  vigour 
of  body,  and  power  to  rule  at  will,  and  to  smite  the  wicked  that 
he  may  vanquish  the  evil  done  by  the  wicked  men  and  demons."^ 
The  prophet  further  prays  to  him  for  health  of  the  body,  long 
duration  of  life,  the  all-shining  abode  of  the  righteous,  the 
realization  of  his  wishes  on  earth,  a  complete  triumph  over  the 
wicked,  and  a  foreknowledge  of  the  evil  intents  of  the  wicked. ^^^ 
Haoma  bestows  these  boons  upon  him.  Haoma  in  like  man- 
ner gives  knowledge  to  the  aspiring  students,  husbands  to  the 
ripening  maidens,  beautiful  offspring  and  righteous  progeny  to 
women,  and  paradise  to  the  righteous.--*  The  devout  worshipper, 
in  return,  dedicates  his  very  body  to  him.'-^  Piety,  accompanied 
by  joy,  enters  the  house  in  which  Haoma  dwells.-^® 

Haoma  implored  to  rout  the  wicked.  This  angel  is  invoked 
to  guard  the  faithful  from  the  harm  of  the  wicked,  to  take  away 
the  power  of  their  hands  and  feet,  and  to  confuse  their  minds, 
so  that  they  cannot  behold  the  universe  with  both  their  eyes.^^^ 
He  is  besought  to  hurl  his  weapons  at  the  skulls  of  the  wicked 
for  the  protection  of  the  righteous,^-^  and  to  crush  the  thought 
of  the  maligner.--^ 

Haoma's  due.  Haoma  is  to  be  propitiated  with  sacrifice. 
Among  other  objects  animals  were  sacrificed  in  the  Zoroastrian 
ritual  unto  the  angels,  and  the  different  parts  of  the  consecrated 
flesh  were  allotted  to  the  various  Yazatas.  The  Pahlavi  books 
elaborately  treat  the  question  of  reserving  particular  parts  of 
the  animal  for  the  various  Yazatas.  We  are  told  that  Ahura 
Mazda  has  set  apart  for  Haoma  as  his  share  in  the  sacrifice 
the  jawbone,  the  tongue,  and  the  left  eye  of  the  immolated 
animal. -^°  In  general  this  is  also  in  accordance  with  the  state- 
ment of  Herodotus  ^^^  regarding  the  Persian  acts  of  sacrifice  in 
worship. 

Haoma's  curse.    Whosoever  deprives  Haoma  of  his  portion 

^'^  Ys.  9.  25.  "*  Ys.  9.  22,  23;  II.  10.  '''  Ys.  9.  30-32. 

""Ys.  9.  27;  10.  2.  ""Ys.  10.  14;  II.  10.       "*Ys.  10.  12. 

"^Yt.  9.  17;  10.  88;  17.  37.  "°Ys.  10.  I.  "»Ys.  11.  4. 

"'Ys.  9.  17,  18.  "'Ys.  9.  28,  29.  "'Herod,  i.  132. 

"' Ys.  9.  19-21. 


122  YAZATAS 

in  the  sacrifice,  displeases  him,  and  the  penalty  he  pays  for  this 
slight  to  Haoma  is  that  a  priest,  a  warrior,  or  a  husbandman  is 
not  thereafter  born  in  his  house.  The  faithful  is  exhorted  to 
propitiate  him  with  his  due  portion,  lest  the  offended  angel 
should  bind  him  with  heavy  iron  chains  as  he  bound  Franras- 
yan.2^2  Haoma  pronounces  his  curse  of  being  childless  and  of 
evil  name  and  fame  against  those  who,  like  thieves,  rob  him  of 
his  legitimate  portion  in  the  sacrifice.^'^^  He  hurled  down  the 
arrogant  Keresani  from  his  throne.^^* 

Haoma,  king  of  plants.  Haoma  is  the  sovereign  lord  of  all 
plants.  Physically  it  is  the  plant  that  grows  on  the  highest 
summits  of  Mount  Hara  Berezaiti,  the  modern  Alburz.^^s  The 
birds  carried  it  from  there  in  all  directions.-^*'  The  nourishing 
earth  is  its  mother  where  it  grows  in  vales  and  dales,  spreading 
sweet  perfume  all  around.^"  It  is  of  golden  hue,  and  the  celestial 
drink  prepared  from  its  branches  is  most  invigorating  and 
profitable  for  the  soul  of  man.-^'^  Indulgence  in  intoxicating 
beverages  causes  wrath  and  strife,  quarrel  and  confusion,  but 
the  drink  of  Haoma  is  accompanied  by  righteousness  and  piety.^"'' 
It  confers  immortality.  It  is  the  source  of  righteousness.-*" 
Haoma  grows  in  abundance  when  it  is  praised  by  man.  The 
pounding  of  the  Haoma  juice  for  sacrifice  is  tantamount  to  the 
destruction  of  the  demons  by  thousands.^"  Misery  vanishes  and 
happiness  and  health  enter  the  house  in  which  Haoma  is  pre- 
pared.2*-  The  exhilarating  drink  gives  inspiration  and  enlighten- 
ment to  his  supplicant  and  makes  the  beggar's  mind  as  exalted  as 
that  of  the  rich.^*^  The  faithful  pray  that  the  healing  remedies 
of  Haoma  may  reach  them  for  the  strength  of  their  bodies.^" 

AsHi  Vanghuhi 

Physically  she  stands  for  plenty,  morally  for  piety.  On 
the  physical  side  Ashi  Vanghuhi,  or  Good  Sanctity,  is  the 
guardian  of  earthly  riches.  She  fills  the  barns  of  men  with 
grain  and  with  cattle,  their  coffers  with  gold,  the  fields  with 
foliage,    the    chests    of    virtuous    women    with    ornaments    and 


232 
2SS 


Ys.  II.  5-7.  "'Ys.  lo.  4,  17-  "'Ys.  lo.  6. 

Ys    II    3  "'Ys.  9.  i6.  '"Ys.  lO.  7- 

'"Ys   Q  24  "•  Ys.  10.  8;  Yt.  17.  5-    "' Ys.  10.  13. 

'"Ysl  10.  10.  ""Ys.  10.  4.  "*  Ys.  10.  14. 


"'Ys.  10.  II. 


YAZATAS  123 

their  boxes  with  fine  garments.-'*^  On  the  ethical  side  she  per- 
sonifies sanctity  and  thus  represents  spiritual  riches.  She  is 
also  the  giver  of  the  mental  riches  unto  men,  that  is,  the  bright 
understanding  and  the  innate  wisdom.-^^  Ahura  Mazda  is  her 
father  and  Spenta  Armaiti,  the  embodiment  of  holy  devotion,  is 
her  mother.  The  archangels,  as  well  as  Sraosha,  Rashnu,  and 
Mithra,  are  her  brothers,  and  Daena,  the  genius  of  the  holy  faith 
of  Zarathushtra,  is  her  sister.^*^  As  the  genius  of  plenty  she 
joins  Mithra,  who  increases  pastures  and  fodder.-*®  The  seven- 
teenth Yasht  is  dedicated  to  her.  Parendi,  Chisti,  Erethe,  and 
Rasanstat  are  invoked  in  her  company.^*^ 

Ashi's  attributes.  She  is  bright,  exalted,  well-formed,  well 
worthy  of  sacrifice,  possessed  of  the  bright  chariot,  courageous, 
giver  of  weal  and  health.-^"  She  is  beautiful,  shining  with  joy, 
and  far  reaching  through  radiance. -^^  She,  the  exalted  one,  is 
well-made  and  of  noble  origin;  she  rules  at  her  will  and  is 
possessed  of  glory  in  her  body.^^-  She,  the  courageous  one, 
carries  all  desirable  things  in  her  hands. -^^  She  is  the  protector, 
guardian,  helper,  healer,  smiter  of  the  malice  of  the  demons  and 
of  the  wicked  men,  the  giver  of  good  gifts,  blessings,  and  success, 
and  the  bestower  of  the  greatest,  best,  and  the  fairest  reward  unto 
men.^^* 

Her  supplicants.  Haoma,  among  the  angels,  and  Haosh- 
yangha,  Yima,  Thraetaona,  Haosravah,  among  men  prior  to  the 
advent  of  Zarathushtra,  as  well  as  the  prophet  himself  and 
King  Vishtaspa,  his  royal  patron  and  helper  in  the  propagation 
of  the  new  faith,  are  among  the  most  illustrious  of  her  sup- 
plicants. These  worshippers  severally  offered  her  sacrifices  and 
asked  for  various  boons  from  her,  which  she  granted  in  answer 
to  their  prayers.^^^  The  most  favoured  among  her  votaries  is 
Zarathushtra  himself;  for  him  her  loving  regard  is  great.^^^ 
This  is  because  the  prophet  himself  is  the  visible  embodiment 
of  sanctity  on  earth  and  the  promoter  of  righteousness  among 
men. 

Her  work.    She  is  ever  ready  to  help  the  faithful.    She  goes 


2<5 


Yt.  17.  7-14.  ""  Yt.  17.  15. 

""Yt.  17.  2.  "'Yt.  17.  7-14- 

"^Yt.  17.  2,  16.  '"Ys.  52.  1-3- 

"'  Yt.  10.  66.  "°  Yt.  17.  24-26,  28-31,  33-35,  37-39, 

""Yt.  17.  62;  Sr.  I.  25.                       41-43,  45-47,  49-52. 

""Yt.  17.  i;  Sr.  2.  25.  "'Yt.  17.  17-22. 
="  Yt.  17.  6. 


124  YAZATAS 

to  those  who  invoke  her  from  near  or  afar  with  pious  libations.^" 
The  house  which  Ashi  graces  with  her  presence  becomes  full  of 
perfume. '^^  Happy  indeed  is  the  man  whom  Ashi  attends,  for 
riches,  abundance,  and  prosperity  spring  up  in  his  house.-^^  She 
gives  plenty  to  the  rulers  and  might  to  the  warriors  to  smite 
their  enemies. -'^°  The  devout  pray  for  her  favour  and  attend- 
ance,'"^ and  thus  implore  her  not  to  withhold  her  kindness  from 
them.-**-  That  Ashi  may  not  quit  their  houses,  is  the  fervent 
prayer  of  the  faithful ;  '^^  and  the  Fravashis  are  invoked  by  the 
righteous  to  bring  the  blessed  Ashi  into  their  abodes.^''*  She 
follows  the  generous  man  who  causes  joy  unto  the  righteous  poor 
by  his  liberal  gifts,  and  she  fills  his  house  with  a  thousandfold 
flocks  and  horses. ^''^ 

What  offends  Ashi  most.  She  is  grieved  at  the  sight  of 
maidens  who  remain  unmarried  for  a  long  time."'"'  She  does  not 
accept  the  libations  ofifered  by  sterile  persons  and  wicked  cour- 
tesans.-*'^ As  the  zealous  guardian  of  the  sanctity  of  matrimony, 
she  abhors  the  wife  who  is  untrue  to  the  nuptial  tie,  the  woman 
who  violates  the  law  of  chastity,  and  the  adulteress  who  sells 
her  body  for  profit  or  pleasure.^ 


268 


Parendi 

Ashi's  associate.  Parendi,  as  the  female  genius  of  riches, 
plenty,  and  activity,  is  held  by  some  scholars  to  be  identical  with 
the  Vedic  Puramdhi.  She  is  the  constant  companion  of  Ashi 
Vanghuhi,  and  is  invoked  with  her.^*'^  She  is  active  in  thought, 
active  in  word,  and  active  in  deed,  and  gives  activity  to  man's 
body.^""  She  moves  about  in  a  light  chariot.^"^  As  the  imper- 
sonation of  earthly  riches  Parendi  accompanies  the  celestial  car 
of  Mithra,  the  lord  of  wide  pastures,  or  again  she  attends 
Tishtrya,  the  genius  of  rain,  in  furthering  the  prosperity  of  the 
earth."2 


'"  Yt.  17.  2.  "'  Yt.  18.  3-5. 

"'  Yt.  17.  6.  '"'  Yt.  17.  59- 

'"  Yt.  17.  7-14.  "'  Yt.  17.  54- 

"« Yt.  17.  7,  12.  "'  Yt.  17.  57,  58. 


*"  Yt.  17.  7-14.  "' Ys.  13.  i;  38.  2;  Yt.  8.  38;  10.  66;  Sr.  i.  25;  2.  25. 

"'Yt.  17.  15.  ""  Vsp.  7.  2. 

"'  Ys.  60.  7-  '"  Yt.  8.  38;  24.  9;  Sr.  i.  25;  2.  25. 

"*Yt.  13.  157.  '"Yt.  8.  38;  10.  66. 


YAZATAS  125 


Drvaspa 


The  female  genius  of  cattle.  She  is  a  female  genius  of  the 
animal  world.  As  the  guardian  of  herds,  she  is  invoked  in  com- 
pany with  Geush  Tashan  and  Geush  Urvan.-"  A  Yasht  (9) 
is  consecrated  to  her  and  bears  her  name,  or  more  familiarly 
that  of  Gosh  or  Geush  Urvan.  Drvaspa  moves  about  in  her 
own  chariot.  Mazda  has  made  her  heroic  and  righteous.  She 
is  the  bestower  of  health  upon  the  cattle  and  kine.  She  watches 
well  from  afar,  gives  welfare  and  long-continuing  friendship. 
She  is  nourishing,  courageous,  well-formed,  possessed  of  weal, 
giver  of  health,  and  powerful  helper  of  the  righteous.^^* 

Her  sacrificers.  The  Yasht  gives  a  list  of  her  supplicants 
who  have  asked  her  to  grant  them  various  boons.  They  are  the 
same  persons  that  invoke  Ashi  Vanghuhi  and  pray  for  the 
same  boons  that  they  ask  from  her.  The  only  difference  between 
the  forms  of  invoking  Drvaspa  and  Ashi  is  that  no  offering  is 
made  to  Ashi  by  any  of  her  supplicants,  whereas,  in  the  case 
of  Drvaspa  we  see  that  with  the  exception  of  Haoma  and 
Zarathushtra  the  other  heroes,  Haoshyangha,  Yima,  Thraetaona, 
Haosravah,  and  Vishtaspa,  bring  to  her  offerings  of  a  hundred 
horses,  a  thousand  oxen,  ten  thousand  small  cattle,  and  the 
libations.^^^ 

Geush  Tashan  and  Geush  Urvan 

Drvaspa's  associates.  We  have  seen  above  in  the  Gathas 
among  the  impersonations  of  the  animal  world  or  universe  two 
distinct  names  Geush  Tashan,  the  fashioner  of  the  Cow  or  of  the 
universe,  and  Geush  Urvan,  the  soul  of  the  Cow  or  of  the  uni- 
verse. The  first  of  these,  Geush  Tashan,  we  understood  as  per- 
sonifying the  creative  genius  of  Ahura  Mazda;  in  the  Later 
Avestan  texts  Geush  Tashan  appears  about  six  times.^'^^  We  do 
not  hear  anything  more  definite  regarding  him  than  the  fact  that 
he  is  invoked  by  name  along  with  other  tutelary  divinities.  It 
may  indeed  be  emphasized  that  he  is  entirely  unknown  from  the 
time  of  the  Pahlavi  period  onward.     Geush  Urvan  is  invoked 

'"  Sr.  I.  14;  2.  14. 

-'*  Yt.  9.  I,  2,  12,  16,  20,  24. 

"'Yt.  9.  3-5,  8-1 1,  13-15,  17-19,  21-23,  25-27,  29-32. 

"°Ys.  I.  2;  39.  i;  70.  2;  Vsp.  9.  5;  Sr.  i.  14;  WFr.  6.  i. 


126  YAZATAS 

in  company  with  Geush  Tashan  and  Drvaspa.^"  Verethraghna, 
the  angel  of  victory,  complains  before  Zarathushtra  that  the  mis- 
chief of  the  demons  and  their  worshippers  increases  upon  earth 
because  men  do  not  offer  sacrifices  to  Geush  Urvan.^^® 

HVAREKHSHAETA 

The  sun  deified.  Hvarekhshaeta  is  the  shining  sun  as  well 
as  the  genius  presiding  over  him.  The  sixth  Yasht  and  the 
first  Nyaish  are  consecrated  to  him ;  but  in  fact  the  first  two 
Nyaishes  celebrate  Hvarekhshaeta  and  Mithra  conjointly.  These 
two  litanies,  moreover,  are  always  recited  together  during  the 
daytime.  The  treatment  of  the  sun-Yazata  and  the  physical 
sun  as  a  phenomenon  of  nature  is  so  complicated  that  it  is  diffi- 
cult in  many  instances  to  distinguish  the  one  from  the  other. 
It  is  not  so  much  Hvarekhshaeta  in  the  capacity  of  an  angel  that 
figures  here,  as  does  Hvarekhshaeta,  the  sun  itself.  The  writer 
of  the  hymn  in  honour  of  Hvarekhshaeta  is  more  interested  in 
depicting  the  movements  of  the  sun  itself  as  the  orb  of  day  than 
in  giving  any  account  of  the  Yazata,  or  presiding  genius  of  the 
sun.  We  have  a  vivid  picture  of  the  sun's  movements,  its  rising 
and  setting,  its  power  to  rout  the  fiends  of  uncleanness  and 
impurity,  but  we  have  hardly  anything  which  treats  of  the 
spiritual  personality  behind  this  great  luminary  of  nature.  The 
worship  of  the  brilliant  sun  must  have  preceded  the  period  of 
its  deification,  and  the  poet  cannot  quite  rid  himself  of  the 
fascination  of  the  primitive  form  of  nature-worship.  The  phys- 
ical phenomenon  of  the  sun  is  always  present  before  the  mind 
of  the  writer;  and  there  is  very  little  attempt  to  address  the 
presiding  genius  through  his  visible  image,  the  concrete  rep- 
resentative being  the  direct  object  of  praise  and  glorification. 
Curtius  refers  to  the  homage  paid  to  the  sun.^^^- 

Hvarekhshaeta  is  invoked  by  his  name,  and  his  standing 
epithets  are  '  the  imperishable,  radiant,  and  the  swift-horsed.' 
The  demons  who,  in  the  darkness  of  night,  come  out  by  the 
million  from  the  bowels  of  the  earth,  glide  away  as  soon  as  the 
sun  mounts  the  sky  and  the  world  is  ablaze  with  its  light. 
Though  they  feast  in  the  night-time,  as  darkness  is  congenial 


"Ys.  I.  2;  39.  i;  70.  2;  Vsp.  9.  5;  Sr.  i.  14;  2.  14. 
Yt.  14.  54- 
Hist.  Alex.  3.  7. 


2 

278 
279 


YAZATAS  127 

to  their  nature,  they  fast  during  the  day,  for  light  is  destructive 
to  their  being.  When  the  Hght  of  Hvarekhshaeta  breaks  through 
the  darkness  of  night,  it  drives  away,  not  only  darkness,  but 
defilement,  disease,  and  death.  Ahura  Mazda  has  the  sun  for 
his  eye.2«°  The  heavens  bathed  in  the  light  of  the  sun  form  his 
garments. '^^  ^ 

Leprosy  is  especially  regarded  as  a  consequence  of  sinning 
against  the  sun,  and  Herodotus  tells  us  that  persons  affected 
w^ith  the  disease  wevG  not  permitted  to  enter  a  town.-*- 

Maonghah 

The  moon  personified.  Herodotus  writes  that  the  moon  is 
the  tutelary  divinity  of  Persia.-^^  The  case  of  this  nature  divinity 
is  analogous  to  that  of  the  sun.  Maonghah  is  at  one  and  the 
same  time  the  moon  and  the  personification  of  the  moon.  The 
seventh  Yasht  and  the  third  Nyaish  are  dedicated  to  this  divine 
personage.  Here  also  we  find  throughout  the  description  of 
the  waxing  and  the  waning  of  the  moon  the  periods  of  the  new 
and  the  full  moons,  and  the  benefit  that  the  light  of  the  moon 
imparts  to  the  world.  We  hear  much  of  the  concrete  moon,  but 
very  little  of  the  abstract  person  of  the  angel.  The  sole-created 
Bull,  the  progenitor  of  the  animal  world,  is  invoked  along  with 
the  moon.-*** 

The  moon  is  constantly  spoken  of  as  the  possessor  of  the 
seed  of  the  Bull.^^^  The  moon  is  furthermore  described  as  the 
bestower,  radiant,  glorious,  possessed  of  water,  possessed  of 
warmth,  possessed  of  knowledge,  wealth,  riches,  discernment, 
weal,  verdure,  good,  and  the  healing  one.-^ 


286 


Anaghra  Raochah 

Deification  of  the  endless  light.    Anaghra  Raochah  means 
the  Endless  Light.     It  is  the  celestial  light  as  opposed  to  the 

""Ys.  I.  II. 
"'  Yt.  13.  3. 
=  "  Herod,  i.  138. 
'''  Herod.  7.  37. 
"*  Sr.  I.  12;  2.  12. 

''"  On  which   subject,   and   on   a  wide-spread  belief  in   a  bull   in   the 
moon,  see  Gray,  in  Spiegel  Memorial  Vohime,  pp.  160-168,  Bombay,  1908. 
"'Yt.  7.  5;  Ny.  3.  7. 


128  YAZATAS 

earthly  light.^"  In  the  order  of  naming  the  various  kinds  of 
*  heavenly  lights,  Anaghra  Raochah  comes  after  the  stars,  moon, 
and  the  sun.^^^  Like  the  stars,  the  moon,  and  the  sun,  this 
supreme  light  stood  without  motion  until  the  Fravashis  or  the 
Guardian  Spirits  showed  it  its  path  of  movement.^^^ 

Anaghra  Raochah  is  personified  as  a  Yazata,  being  invoked 
at  the  sacrifice,^""  and  the  thirtieth  day  of  the  Zoroastrian  cal- 
endar bears  his  name.  In  a  couple  of  instances  we  find  Paradise 
and  the  Bridge  of  Judgment,  likewise  Apam  Napat,  Haoma, 
Dahma    Afriti,    and    Damoish    Upamana,    invoked    along    with 


Anaghra  Raochah.^^^ 


ASMAN 


Firmament  deified.  In  its  original  meaning  Asman  means 
the  sky;  it  is  later  personified  as  the  genius  of  the  sky,  and 
invoked  as  a  Yazata.^^^  Asman  and  Vahishta  Ahu,  or  Paradise, 
are  invoked  together, ^^^  and  the  twenty-seventh  day  of  the  Zoro- 
astrian month  is  called  after  the  name  of  Asman. 


USHAH 

The  female  divinity  of  dawn.  Ushah  is  identical  with  the 
Vedic  Ushas,  and  is  the  female  divinity  of  the  dawn  in  both 
religions,  thus  coming  down  from  the  common  Indo-Iranian 
period.  It  is  she  who  announces,  as  the  first  glimpse  of  light,  to 
creation,  the  approach  of  dawn.  Ushah's  personality  is  very 
faintly  pronounced  in  the  Younger  Avestan  texts,  yet  she  is 
described  as  beautiful,  resplendent,  possessed  of  bright  steeds, 
blessed,  and  heroic;  and  her  light  illumines  all  the  seven 
zones.^^*  Auxiliaries  to  Ushah  are  Ushahina  and  Berejya  and 
Nmanya.  In  fact  Ushahina,  who  is  also  a  male  personification 
of  dawn,  is  the  name  of  the  fifth  period  of  the  day,  and  the 
prayer  consecrated  to  Ushah  bears  his  name.    The  priest  at  the 

"'  Vd.  2.  40. 

"» Ys.  71.  9;  Yt.  12.  35;  13-  57;  G.  3-  6. 

"•  Yt.  13.  57. 

"°  Ys.  I.  16;  16.  6;  71-9;  Sr.  i.  30;  2.  30;  Vd.  19.  35- 

"'  Sr.  I.  30;  2.  30. 

"' Ys.  I.  16;  16.  6;  Sr.  i.  27;  2.  27. 

""  Sr.  I.  27;  2.  27. 

"•Yt.  5.62;  Vd.  18.  15,23;  G.  5.  5. 


YAZATAS  129 

sacrifice  undertakes  to  propitiate  Ushahina  by  sacrifice,  if  he  has 
in  thought,  word,  deed,  or  will  ofifended  him.^"^ 

TiSHTRYA 

The  star  genius  directs  the  rain.  Next  in  importance  to  the 
sun  and  moon,  among  the  heavenly  luminaries,  are  the  countless 
stars.  Among  the  stars  that  are  personified  as  objects  of  praise 
and  reverence,  the  most  prominent  is  the  radiant  and  glorious 
star  Tishtrya.  He  is  the  star  Sirius  in  the  constellation  of  Canis 
Major.  The  Yazata  who  impersonates  this  brilliant  star  bears 
naturally  also  the  same  name.  The  Tishtrya  Yasht  (8)  sings  the 
glory  of  the  twofold  work  of  Tishtrya,  both  as  star  and  as  the 
Yazata  that  presides  over  it.  Tishtrya  is,  therefore,  the  rain- 
star,  and  the  Yasht  gives  a  lively  picture  of  his  movements  in 
producing  clouds  and  rain  and  sleet,  and  distributing  them  over 
all  the  world.  Tishtrya's  constant  companions  are  the  star- 
Yazatas,  named  Vanant,  Satavaesa,  and  Haptoiringa,  as  guard- 
ian spirits  of  different  regions  of  the  heavens.-''® 

Tishtrya's  attributes.  His  standing  epithets  are  '  the  ra- 
diant '  and  '  the  glorious.'  He  is  the  giver  of  fertility  to  the 
fields,^^^  the  giver  of  happy  and  good  abode  unto  men,  the  white, 
shining,  seen  from  afar,  the  healing,  and  the  exalted  one.^^^  He 
is  possessed  of  the  seed  of  the  waters,  the  valiant,  the  courageous, 
far  reaching,  the  efficient,'^^  and  of  sound  eyes.^"°  Ahura  Mazda 
has  appointed  Tishtrya  as  the  lord  of  all  other  stars,  even  as  he 
has  ordained  Zarathushtra  as  the  spiritual  lord  of  all  mankind. ^"^ 
The  creator  has  made  him  as  worthy  of  sacrifice,  as  worthy  of 
invocation,  as  worthy  of  propitiation,  and  as  worthy  of  glorifica- 
tion as  himself.=*°2  According  to  Plutarch  he  is  established  as  a 
scout  over  all  other  stars.^"^ 

The  sacrificial  offerings  enable  Tishtrya  to  work  with 
added  vigour  and  strength.  Tishtrya  smites  the  wicked 
fairies.^*'*  Like  Verethraghna,  he  takes  upon  himself  successive 
forms  when  he  goes  out  for  active  work.     He  moves  forward 

'"Ys.  I.  20,  21. 

""^  Sr.  I.  13;  2.  13;  cf.  Moulton,  Early  Zoroastrianism,  p.  23,  London, 


1913- 

"'  Yt.  8.  I. 

»"  Yt.  8.  44. 

"'  Yt.  8.  2. 

""■  Yt.  8.  50,  52. 

"•  Yt.  8.  4. 

'"=  Is.  et  Os.  47. 

»°»Yt.  8.  12; 

Ny.  I.  8. 

-  Yt.  8.  8,  39,  40,  51-55 

130  YAZATAS 

in  the  heavens  for  the  first  ten  nights  of  the  month  in  the  form 
of  a  young  man,  for  the  next  ten  nights  in  the  form  of  a  bull,  and 
then,  for  the  last  ten  nights  in  the  shape  of  a  beautiful  horse.^°' 
In  accordance  with  the  will  of  Ahura  Mazda  and  the  archangels, 
he  traverses  the  most  distant  parts  of  the  earth,^°*'  and  the  Iranian 
countries  long  for  his  advent,  for  it  is  through  him  that  the 
country  will  witness  a  year  of  plenty  or  of  drought.^°^  Men  and 
beasts,  the  waters  and  all,  look  eagerly  to  the  rising  of  the  star 
Tishtrya,  as  he  will  send  a  flood  of  rain  to  fertilize  their  waste 
lands  with  water  and  bestow  riches  upon  the  earth,  if  the  right- 
eous faithfully  offer  him  praise  and  worship.^**^  The  farmer 
yearns  for  a  few  drops  of  Tishtrya's  rain  to  moisten  his  parched 
fields,  the  gardener  longs  for  a  shower  to  brighten  the  foliage. 
The  land  smiles  with  rich  harvests  as  a  result  of  his  fertilizing 
waters. 

Tishtrya  complains  before  Ahura  Mazda  about  the  indiffer- 
ence of  men  who  do  not  sacrifice  unto  him.  When  invoked 
with  sacrifice,  as  are  the  other  angels,  he  is  willing  to  hasten  to 
the  help  of  the  righteous,  whether  for  a  single  night,  or  two 
nights,  or  fifty  nights,  or  even,  a  hundred  nights. ^°^  Tishtrya 
afiirms  that  owing  to  his  power  to  further  righteousness,  he  is 
worthy  of  sacrifice  and  invocation,  and  if  people  will  offer  him 
libations  and  Haoma  in  sacrifice,  he  will  grant  them  heroic  chil- 
dren, and  purity  unto  their  souls,  the  riches  of  oxen  and  horses. ^^^ 
He  pours  down  water  in  abundance  upon  the  earth,  and  brings 
prosperity  unto  the  whole  creation,  when  he  receives  the  offer- 
ing of  a  sacrifice  and  is  propitiated,  rejoiced,  and  satisfied.^^^ 
Never,  in  that  event,  would  the  hostile  horde  invade  the  Aryan 
countries,  nor  would  any  calamity  or  evil  of  any  kind  befall 
them.^^^  Yet  in  spite  of  all  this,  the  bounteous  kindness  of 
Tishtrya  grants  boons  to  his  votary  whether  he  prays  for  them 
or  not.^^^ 

His  fight  with  the  demon  of  drought.  Tishtrya  is  opposed 
in  his  work  of  producing  rain  by  his  adversary  Apaosha,  the 
demon  of  drought,  who  keeps  back  the  rain.  The  Tishtrya 
Yasht  gives  a  picturesque  account  of  the  struggle  between  them. 


3oe 


Yt.  8.  13,  16,  18;  Vd.  19.  37.  ""  Yt.  8.  15,  17,  19. 

^°«  Yt.  8.  35.  '''  Yt.  8.  43,  47. 

""Yt.  8.  36.  "''Yt.  8.  56. 

'"*  Yt.  8.  36,  41,  42,  48.  '''  Yt.  8.  49- 

'""Yt.   8.    II. 


YAZATAS  131 

In  his  combat  with  the  fiend  that  holds  the  world  in  clutch 
through  farnine  and  drought,  Apaosha  assaults  his  opponent  and 
in  their  opening  combat  succeeds  in  forcing  Tishtrya  to  retreat. 
Worsted  by  the  fiend,  Tishtrya  mourns  his  defeat  and  complains 
that  men  do  not  sufficiently  sacrifice  unto  him  as  they  do  unto 
other  celestial  powers,  for  had  they  not  been  sparing  in  their 
invocation,  he  would  have  been  able  to  bring  a  further  strength 
of  ten  horses,  of  ten  camels,  of  ten  oxen,  of  ten  mountains,  and 
of  ten  rivers  to  his  side.  Ahura  Mazda  himself,  thereupon,  of- 
fers a  sacrifice  unto  Tishtrya  and  thus  imparts  new  strength 
to  him.  Thus  emboldened,  he  now,  with  renewed  vigour,  attacks 
his  rival  for  the  second  time,  and  after  a  fierce  struggle  overcomes 
him.  His  triumph  is  hailed  as  the  triumph  of  the  waters,  plants, 
and  the  religion  of  Mazda,  for  Tishtrya  is  now  in  a  position  to 
bring  prosperity  to  the  country.^i*  Ahura  Mazda,  the  Amesha 
Spentas,  as  well  as  Mithra,  Ashi  Vanghuhi,  and  Parendi,  are 
among  those  that  help  Tishtrya  in  this  war  of  the  elements  for 
the  benefit  of  mankind.^^^ 

Vanant 

A  star-Yazata.  The  other  important  star-Yazata  besides 
Tishtrya  who  is  classed  among  the  spiritual  beings  is  Vanant. 
The  twentieth  Yasht  is  composed  in  his  honour.  Tradition  as- 
signs to  him  the  special  work  of  guarding  the  gates  of  the  great 
Alburz  round  which  the  sun,  moon,  and  the  stars  revolve,  and 
accounts  him  as  the  leader  of  a  constellation  in  the  western 
heavens  in  the  war  against  the  planets.  In  the  Avestan  Yasht 
bearing  this  star-Yazata"s  name,  Vanant  is  specially  invoked  to 
give  help  to  smite  the  noxious  creatures  of  Angra  Mainyu.^^^ 
Some  spells  to  this  efifect,  composed  in  the  Pazand  language,  are 
later  appended  to  this  particular  Yasht.  It  is  elsewhere  stated 
in  the  Avesta  that  Ahura  Mazda  has  created  him.^i^  and  that  the 
faithful  ask  him  for  strength  and  victory  to  enable  them  to  re- 
move distress  and  tyranny.^^^ 

Satavaesa 

An  acolyte  of  Tishtrya.    The  star  Satavaesa  is  also  personi- 
fied, but  his  individuality  is  very  faintly  pronounced.     He  has 

'"  Yt.  8.  20-2Q.  °^»Yt.  20.  I.  '"'Yt  8   12 

"°Yt.  8.  7,  2S.  '^'Yt.  8.  12;  Ny.  i.  8. 


132  YAZATAS 

no  Yasht  or  hymn  composed  to  glorify  him.  As  an  acolyte  of 
Tishtrya,  he  causes  the  waters  of  the  sea  Vourukasha  to  flow- 
down  to  the  seven  zones  for  the  nourishment  of  plants  and 
animals,  and  for  the  fertility  and  prosperity  of  the  Aryan 
nations.^^® 

Haptoiringa 

Another  acolyte  of  Tishtrya.  This  constellation,  Ursa 
Major,  is  also  raised  to  the  position  of  a  lesser  divinity.  Ninety- 
nine  thousand  nine  hundred  and  ninety-nine  Fravashis  watch  over 
this  stellar  cluster.^'-*'  The  genius  of  this  star  is  invoked  to  enable 
mankind  to  oppose  the  evil  caused  by  the  sorcerers  and  fairies.^^^ 

Vayu 

The  deification  of  the  vdnd.  Vayu,  or  Vata,  is  the  Indo- 
Iranian  impersonation  of  wind.  Vayu  again  at  times  stands  for 
wind  as  such,  and  not  for  the  angel  of  wind ;  and  the  terms  Vayu 
and  Vata  are  variously  used  to  represent  either  the  wind  or  the 
genius  of  wind.  As  we  have  already  seen,  the  whole  of  the  Ram 
Yasht  treats  of  the  exploits  of  Raman's  comrade  Vayu.  Vayu's 
wind  is  divided  into  two  parts,  the  good  and  the  evil.  The  wind 
is  productive  of  good,  but  it  also  causes  harm.  That  part  of 
Vayu  which  is  supposed  to  be  the  source  of  harm  is  branded  as 
evil,  and  classed  among  Angra  Mainyu's  creations.  Hence  the 
faithful  take  care  to  sacrifice  unto  that  part  alone  of  Vayu  which 
is  the  creation  of  Spenta  Mainyu.^-- 

Vayu's  attributes.  The  genius  of  wind  is  most  frequently 
called  '  working  on  high.'  He  strikes  terror  among  all,  and  fear- 
lessly enters  the  deepest  and  the  darkest  places  to  smite  the 
demons.^-^  He  is  high-girt,  of  strong  stature,  of  high  foot,  of 
wide  breast,  of  broad  thighs,  and  of  powerful  eyes.^^*  He  wears 
a  golden  helm  and  a  golden  crown,  a  golden  necklace,  and  golden 
garments;  he  has  golden  shoes  and  a  golden  girdle;  and  armed 
with  golden  weapons  he  rides  in  a  golden  chariot  rolling  on 


•'»  Yt.  8.  9;  13-  43;  Sr.  I.  13;  2.  13. 

""  Yt.  13.  60. 

•"Yt.  8.  12;  Sr.  2.  13. 

•"Ys.  22.  24;  25.  5;  Yt.  IS.  5,  42,  57; 

Sr.  I.  21 ; 

2.  21, 

»^'Yt.  IS.  S3. 

'=*Yt.   15.  S4. 

YAZATAS  133 

golden  wheels.^^^  A  fine  image  this,  to  immortalize  Vayu  in  a 
golden  statue !  The  poet  gives  a  long  list  of  the  names  of  Vayu, 
and  is  very  prolific  in  ascribing  high  attributes  to  him.  In  this 
the  ancient  composer  follows  the  Yasht  dedicated  to  Ahura 
Mazda.  In  fact  Vayu  is  the  only  angel  who  is  known,  like  Ahura 
Mazda,  by  many  names.  The  text  enumerates  about  forty-seven 
of  such  titles.  Almost  all  of  these  attributes  of  Vayu  are  de- 
rived from  the  function  of  Vayu  as  wind,  rather  than  from  his 
activity  as  the  genius  of  wind.  They  pertain  to  the  atmospheric 
phenomenon  more  than  to  the  abstract  ideas  about  the  angel. 
Some  of  the  more  important  of  the  names  of  Vayu  are  as  follows : 
the  overtaker,  the  all-vanquishing,  the  good-doer,  the  one  going 
forwards  and  backwards,  the  destroyer,  smiter,  usurper,  the  most 
valiant,  the  strongest,  the  firmest,  the  stoutest,  the  vanquisher  at 
one  stroke,  the  destroyer  of  malice,  the  liberator,  the  pervading 
one,  and  the  glorious.^-'' 

Those  who  offer  sacrifices  unto  Vayu.  The  recital  of  his 
names  has  a  great  efficacy,  and  Vayu  asks  Zarathushtra  to  invoke 
these  names  in  the  thick  of  the  battle,  or  when  the  tyrant  and 
heretic  threaten  him  with  their  havocking  hordes.  The  man  in 
heavy  fetters  finds  himself  freed  upon  the  recital  of  these 
names.^'^  Vayu  is  the  greatest  of  the  great  and  the  strongest  of 
the  strong.  The  text  briefly  describes  how  some  of  the  most 
illustrious  personages  invoked  Vayu  and  begged  of  him  various 
boons,  and  in  this  connection  we  may  recall  that  Herodotus  ^-^ 
mentions  the  fact  that  the  Persians  sacrificed  to  the  winds  among 
other  divine  forces  in  nature.  The  list  of  Vayu's  supplicants  in 
Yasht  15  is  headed  by  Ahura  Mazda  himself,  who  desired  the 
boon  that  he  may  smite  the  creatures  of  Angra  Mainyu,  but 
that  none  may  smite  the  creation  of  Spenta  Mainyu."^  Among 
the  kings,  renowned  heroes,  and  other  personages  who  sacrificed 
unto  Vayu,  and  to  whom  the  angel  granted  their  boons,  are 
Haoshyangha,  Takhma  Urupi,  Yima,  Thraetaona,  Keresaspa, 
Aurvasara,  Hutaosa,  and  such  maidens  as  are  not  yet  given  in 
marriage.^ ^°  Even  the  wicked  Azhi  Dahaka  begged  also  of  him 
a  boon,  but  Vayu  rejected  his  sacrifice. ^^^  Men  sacrifice  unto 
Vayu  with  libations  and  prayers  and  ask  for  strength  to  vanquish 

'  =  =  Yt.  IS.  57.  "'  Herod,  i.  131.  ""  Yt.  15.  7-i7,  23-41. 

"«  Yt.  15.  43-48.  "•  Yt.  15.  2-4.  '''  Yt.  IS.  19-21. 

•"  Yt.  IS.  49-52. 


134  YAZATAS 

their  adversaries.^^^  Vayu  asks  Zarathushtra  to  invoke  him,  in 
order  that  neither  Angra  Mainyu,  nor  the  sorcerers,  nor  the 
demons  may  be  able  to  injure  the  prophet.^^^ 

Atar 

The  fire  cult  in  Iran.  Atar,  or  Fire,  is  most  frequently  called 
the  son  of  Ahura  Mazda  in  the  Younger  Avestan  texts.  The 
devout  hunger  in  heart  to  reach  Mazda  through  him  as  a  me- 
diary."^*  As  the  most  holy  symbol  of  his  faith,  the  house-lord 
prays  that  the  sacred  element  may  ever  burn  in  his  house.^^^ 
We  have  already  seen  that  the  Avesta  speaks  of  some  sacred 
fires  consecrated  by  the  pre-Zoroastrian  kings  in  Iran.  The 
Avestan  works  refer  to  the  daitya  gatu,  '  proper  place '  for  the 
fire,  and  the  Old  Persian  Inscriptions  speak  of  the  dyadand,  as 
the  places  of  worship.^^^  Herodotus,  the  earliest  of  the  Greek 
writers  on  Persia,  however,  informs  us  that  the  Persians  did  not 
erect  temples  in  his  days,  but  sacrificed  unto  the  elements  sun, 
moon,  earth,  fire,  water,  and  wind  on  the  summits  of  mountains.^" 
Dino,  the  contemporary  of  Alexander,  does  not  mention  the  fire- 
temples  and  says  that  the  Persians  worshipped  in  the  open  air.^^* 
It  may  be  that  these  early  writers  did  not  come  across  temples 
in  Iran,  in  the  Greek  sense  of  the  term,  but  there  must  certainly 
have  been  some  kind  of  structures  to  protect  the  sacred  fire  from 
being  extinguished.  Strabo  '^^  for  the  first  time  mentions  in 
Cappadocia  places  dedicated  to  fire,  and  speaks  of  enclosures  with 
fire  altars  in  the  centre.  No  sacrifices,  we  are  told,  were  offered 
to  any  divinity  without  the  accompaniment  of  the  invocation  of 
fire.  These  altars,  we  are  further  informed  by  Strabo,  were  filled 
with  ashes  over  which  the  sacred  fire  burned  day  and  night. 
The  Magi,  he  adds,  tended  the  holy  flames,  and  with  Baresman 
twigs  in  their  hands  daily  performed  their  devotions  for 
about    an    hour.^*°      Pausanias  ^*^    corroborates    this    statement 

^"  Yt.  15.  I. 
"» Yt.  IS.  56. 
'"  Ys.  36.  I. 

'"  Ys.  62.  3 ;  Ny.  5-  9- 
»"Bh.   I.   14- 
'"  Herod,  i.  131. 

"*  Frag.  9.  FHG.  2.  91 ;  cf.  Windischmann  in  Sanjana's  Zarathushtra 
in  the  Gathas  and  in  the  Greek  and  Roman  Classics,  p.  88,  Leipzig,  1897. 
'"  60  B.C. 
''"  Strabo,  p.  733. 
»"  173   A.D. 


YAZATAS  ,135 

from  his  personal  observation  in  Lydia.^*-  Xenophon  acquaints 
us  with  the  practice  of  carrying  fire  on  portable  altars  in  religious 
processions.^'*^ 

Atar  is  both  the  genius  of  fire  and  the  element  fire  itself. 
He  is  the  most  bountiful,^**  the  lord  of  the  house,^*^  of  renowned 
name,^**^  the  beneficent  warrior,  and  full  of  glory  and  healing.^*^ 
Besides  being  the  angel  that  presides  over  fire,  Atar  is  also  fire 
as  such.  The  two  concepts  are  often  so  mixed  up  together  that 
it  becomes  difficult  to  distinguish  between  the  blazing  fire  burning 
upon  the  altar  and  the  angel  that  personifies  it.  The  difficulty  is 
still  more  increased  when  we  see  the  fire  in  the  hearth  conceived 
of  as  speaking  and  blessing  as  a  person.  The  fire  of  Mazda 
solicits  devotional  offerings  from  those  persons  for  whom  he 
cooks  the  evening  and  the  morning  meal ;  he  looks  at  the  hands  of 
all  passersby,  to  see  if  they  bring  some  present  for  him  or  not, 
even  as  a  friend  for  a  friend.  When  the  faithful  bring  to  him  fuel, 
dry  and  exposed  to  the  light,  he  is  propitiated,  and  in  the  fulfil- 
ment of  his  wash  blesses  the  votary  with  abundance  and  wisdom 
and  joyous  life."*^  During  the  three  watches  of  the  night  Atar 
wakes  up  the  master  of  the  house,  the  husbandman,  and  calls 
Sraosha  for  help.^*^  Here  also  it  is  not  so  much  the  angel 
Atar  that  acts,  as  it  is  the  fire  itself,  for  the  master  of  the 
house  and  the  husbandman  are  asked  to  wash  their  hands  and 
bring  fuel  to  it,  lest  the  demon  Azi  should  extinguish  it.^^° 
The  man  who  responds  with  alacrity,  and  is  the  first  to  wake  up 
and  tend  the  fire  with  dry  wood,  receives  Atar's  blessings. ^^^ 
The  man  who  sacrifices  unto  fire  with  fuel  in  his  hand,  with  the 
Baresman  in  his  hand,  with  milk  in  his  hand,  with  the  mortar 
for  crushing  the  branches  of  the  sacred  Haoma  in  his  hand,  is 
given  happiness.^^-  Phoenix  of  Colophon  (280  B.C.),  cited  in 
Athenaeus,  speaks  of  the  fire  ritual  of  the  Magi  and  mentions 
the  Baresman.^''"^  Strabo  says  that  the  fire-priests  fed  the  sacred 
fire  with  dry  wood,  fat,  and  oil;  and  he  further  adds  that  some 
portions  of  the  caul  of  the  sacrificed  animal  were  also  placed 
on  it.^^^ 

''=  Pausanias,   5-  27.   5,  6.  "'"' Vd.  18.  18-22. 

^"  Cyropaedia,  8.  3-   ii-i3-  ""  Vd.  18.  19-21. 


"♦Ys.  I.  2. 

»"Ys.  17.  II. 

'••  Vsp.  9-  5. 

'*'  Sr.  I.  9;  2.  9- 

'*'Ys.  62.  7-10;  Ny.  S. 

13-16. 

as: 


3S3 


'  Vd.  18.  26,  27. 

Ys.  62.  I ;  Ny.  5.  7. 
^  Athenaeus,  12,  p.  530. 

Strabo,  p.  732. 


136  YAZATAS 

Atar's  boons.  Atar  is  invoked  to  grant  well-being  and  sus- 
tenance in  abundance,  knowledge,  holiness,  a  ready  tongue, 
comprehensive,  great,  and  imperishable  wisdom,  manly  valour, 
watchfulness,  a  worthy  offspring,  name  and  fame  in  this 
world,  as  well  as  the  shining,  all-happy  paradise  of  the  right- 
eous.^^* Whoso  does  not  treat  the  fire  well  displeases  Ahura 
Mazda.^^^ 

His  work.  When  Mithra  goes  on  his  usual  round  in  his 
golden  chariot,  Atar  drives  behind  him  along  with  the  other 
divine  personifications.^^*^  When  Angra  Mainyu  breaks  into 
the  creation  of  righteousness,  Atar  in  company  with  Vohu  Manah 
opposes  the  malice  of  the  Evil  Spirit.^-^^  When  Yima,  reft  of 
his  senses  through  the  Kingly  Glory,  revolts  from  Ahura  Mazda, 
the  Glory  departs  from  him  and  he  falls  to  destruction.^^^  It 
can  well  be  imagined  that  the  monster  Azhi  Dahaka  should 
strive  to  capture  the  departed  Glory,  but  Atar  intervenes  and 
vanquishes  him.^^^ 

What  causes  grief  to  Atar?  Angra  Mainyu  has  created  the 
inexpiable  crime  of  burning  or  cooking  dead  matter,^^°  and  the 
Vendidad  enjoins  capital  punishment  for  those  who  commit  it.^®^ 
We  are  informed  that  the  Persians  considered  it  a  mortal  sin  to 
defile  fire  by  blowing  it  with  the  mouth,  or  by  burning  dead  matter 
over  it.^*^-  The  Achaemenian  monarch  Cambyses  roused  the  in- 
dignation of  his  countrymen  when  he  burnt  the  corpse  of  King 
Amasis  at  Sais.^®^  It  is,  therefore,  a  crime  to  bring  back  fire  into 
a  house  in  which  a  man  has  died,  within  nine  nights  in  winter 
and  a  month  in  summer.^^*  Highly  meritorious  is  the  deed  of 
bringing  to  the  fire  altar  the  embers  of  a  fire  desecrated  by  dead 
matter,  and  great  shall  be  the  doer's  reward  in  the  next  world, 
when  his  soul  has   parted   from  his   body.^'*'^     Elaborate  rules 

'"  Ys.  68.  4-6;  Ny.  5-  10-12. 
""TdFr.  22,  23. 
''°  Yt.  10.  127. 
•"  Yt.  13.  11,  78. 
'"  Yt.  19.  34-36,  38. 
»"  Yt.  19.  46-50. 
"•  Vd.  I.  16. 
""  Vd.  8.  73,  74- 

'°'  Strabo,  p.  732;  Ctesias,  Persica,  57;  Nicolaos  Damascenus,  Frag.  68. 
FHG.  3.  409. 

'°'  Herodotus,  3.  16. 
'-  Vd.  5-  43,  44- 
'"  Vd.  8.  81,  82. 


YAZATAS  137 

are  accordingly  laid  down  for  the  purification  of  the  fire  defiled 
by  the  dead.^^^  There  is  no  purification  for  the  man  who  carries 
a  corpse  to  the  fire.''"  In  the  case  of  every  pollution  of  the  pure 
element,  Atar  is  inexorable. 

Nairyosangha 

Mazda's  celestial  herald.  Nairyosangha  corresponds  to  the 
Vedic  Narashamsa,  generally  applied  to  Agni  as  his  epithet.  He 
is  expressly  spoken  of  as  a  Yazata/^^  and  is  well-shaped. ^^^  He  is 
the  messenger  of  Ahura  Mazda ;  ""  when  the  Evil  Spirit  intro- 
duces disease  and  death  in  the  world,  Ahura  Mazda  dispatches  him 
as  his  envoy  to  Airyaman  to  come  with  his  healing  remedies.^" 
He  is  invoked  along  with  Atar,  for  he  is  Atar's  associate.  He 
is  termed  the  ofifspring  of  sovereignty ,"2  and  as  such  he  is  entitled 
to  go  in  Mithra's  chariot  with  Sraosha.^^^"*  He  has  his 
Fravashi.^" 

Ardvi  Sura  Anahita 

The  angel  of  waters.  Ardvi  Sura  is  the  name  of  a  mythical 
river  as  well  as  that  of  the  female  divinity  of  the  waters.  She 
resides  in  the  starry  regions."^  This  deity  of  the  heavenly  stream 
gets  recognition  of  the  ^chaemenian  kings,  and  is  included  in 
the  extremely  short  list  of  uie  Iranian  divinities  expressly  men- 
tioned in  their  inscriptions."^  At  a  very  early  date  her  cult 
migrates  to  distant  countries.  She  overleaps  the  barriers  of 
Mount  Alburz  and  gains  her  votaries  in  the  far-off  land  of  East 
and  West,  where  occasionally  her  cult  degenerates  into  ob- 
scene rites.  Herodotus,  who  confuses  her  with  Mithra,  says 
that  her  cult  came  to  Iran  from  the  Semites  of  Assyria  and 
Arabia.^^^ 

She  is  celebrated  in  one  of  the  longest  Yashts.  In  this  she 
is  described  as  the  most  courageous,  strong,  of  noble  origin,"® 
good,  and  most  beneficent.^^"  Ahura  Mazda  has  assigned  to  her 
the  work  of  guarding  the  holy  creation,  like  a  shepherd  guarding 
his  flock.3«i 

'°«Vd.  8.  73-80.  '"Vd.  22.  7,  13.  ""Art.  Sus.  a;  Ham. 

="Vd.  7.  25-27.  '"Ys.  17.  11;  Ny.  5.  6.  '"Herod,  i.  131. 

'»' Ys.  17.  II.  3T3.374Yt.  10.  52.  "'Yt.  5-  15- 

•"Ys.  57.  3.  *"Yt.  13.  85.  ""Yt.  5-  130,  131. 

'"  Vd.  19.  34-  "•  Yt.  5.  85,  88,  132.  "'  Yt.  5-  89. 


138  YAZATAS 

Her  image  in  words  found  in  the  texts,  corresponds  with 
her  statue  in  stone.  The  text  gives  a  fine  descriptive  image  of 
the  female  deity.  She  is  a  maiden  of  fair  body,  well-shaped,  pure, 
and  glorious.  Upon  her  head  she  wears  a  golden  crown  studded 
with  a  hundred  stars  and  beautifully  adorned,  square  golden 
earrings  adorn  her  ears,  a  golden  necklace  decorates  her  neck,  she 
has  tightly  girded  her  waist  so  that  her  beautiful  breasts  come  out 
prominently,  her  white  arms  graced  by  elegant  bracelets  are 
stouter  than  a  horse,  she  wears  golden  shoes,  a  rich  garment  of 
gold  or  of  the  skin  of  the  beavers.^*^  This  exquisite  portrayal 
of  the  divinity  is  regarded  by  some  scholars  as  the  faithful  repro- 
duction in  words  of  Anahita's  statues  in  stone  and  metal.  We 
have  already  seen  on  the  authority  of  Berosus  that  Artaxerxes 
IMnemon  ^^^  introduced  the  worship  of  the  images  of  Anahita 
among  the  Persians.^®* 

Ahura  Mazda  heads  the  list  of  the  sacrificers  who  entreat 
her  for  various  boons.  The  Yasht  dedicated  to  Ardvi  Sura 
Anahita  furnishes  us  with  the  names  of  those  who  have  sacri- 
ficed unto  her  and  begged  of  her  various  boons.  The  number 
of  her  supplicants  exceeds  that  of  any  other  angel.  Ahura  Mazda 
and  Zarathushtra  invoke  her,  with  Haoma  and  Baresman,  with 
spells  and  libations,  whereas  the  majority  of  her  other  votaries 
severally  offer  her  a  hundred  stallions,  a  thousand  oxen,  and  ten 
thousand  sheep.  Haoshyangha,  Yima,  Thraetaona,  Keresaspa, 
Kavi  Usa,  Haosravah,  Tusa,  Vafra  Navaza,  Jamaspa,  Ashavaz- 
dah,  the  son  of  Pourudakhshti,  and  Ashavazdah  and  Thrita,  the 
sons  of  Sayuzhdri,  Vistauru,  Yoishta,  the  members  of  the  Hvova 
and  Naotara  families,  Vishtaspa,  and  Zairi-vairi  are  all  granted 
their  diverse  boons.  These  ask  for  sovereignty  over  all  coun- 
tries, victory  on  the  battlefield,  power  to  smite  the  adversaries 
in  battle,  to  rout  the  sorcerers  and  fairies,  the  fiends  and  the 
demons ;  they  pray  likewise  for  bodily  health,  wisdom  to  answer 
the  riddles  of  the  heretics,  and  for  riches  and  swift  horses.^*' 
The  boon  that  Ahura  Mazda  seeks  is  that  he  may  win  over  Zara- 
thushtra to  think  after  his  religion,  to  speak  after  his  religion, 
and  to  act  after  his  religion ;  the  prophet  in  turn  begs  of  her  that 

"'  Yt.  5,  7,  64,  78,  126-129. 
""  B.C.  404-358. 

^'^  Frag.  16.  FHG.  2.  508;  cf.  Cumont,  Anahita,  in  ERE.  vol.  i,  pp. 
414.  415- 

'"Yt.  5.  21-27,  33-39,  45-55,  61-83,  98,  108-114. 


YAZATAS  139 

he  may  gain  to  his  side  the  mighty  king  Vishtaspa  as  a  patron 
to  embrace  his  religion. ^^^  The  rulers  and  chiefs  invoke  her,  the 
warriors  beg  of  her  swift  horses  and  glory,  the  priests  and  their 
disciples  pray  for  knowledge,  the  maids  beseech  her  to  grant 
them  strong  husbands.^^^  Ardvi  Sura  Anahita  bestows  fruit- 
fulness  to  women ;  she  purifies  the  seeds  of  all  males  and  the 
wombs  of  all  females  for  bearing.  She,  as  a  divine  bestower, 
gives  easy  childbirth  to  all  females,  and  gives  them  right  and 
timely  milk.^®^  Ardvi  Sura  likewise  grants  boons  unto  all,  be- 
cause it  lies  in  her  power  to  do  so.  The  sacrificing  priest  im- 
plores her  to  come  down  from  the  stars  to  the  sacrificial  altar, 
and  to  grant  riches,  horses,  chariots,  swords,  food,  and  plenty 
to  men.^*^ 

She  refuses  to  concede  the  wicked  persons  their  wishes. 
Azhi  Dahaka  wickedly  besought  her  to  grant  him  a  boon  that 
he  may  make  all  the  seven  zones  empty  of  men,  and  the  Turanian 
Franrasyan  sought  her  favour  to  secure  the  Glory,  and  the  sons 
of  Vaesaka  implored  her  to  grant  that  they  may  smite  the  Aryan 
nation  by  tens  of  thousands  and  myriads;  Arejat-aspa  and  Van- 
daremainish  craved  for  the  defeat  of  King  Vishtaspa,  Zairivairi, 
and  the  Aryan  nation;  but  Ardvi  Sura  Anahita  refused  to  grant 
the  evil  wishes  to  these  national  foes  of  Iran.^^° 

The  offerings  of  libations.  Ardvi  Sura  Anahita  desires  that 
men  invoke  her  with  libations  and  Haoma ;  ^^^  these  libations  are 
to  be  drunk  by  the  priest  who  is  well  versed  in  religious  lore,  and 
not  by  any  wicked  and  deformed  person. ^^^  The  faithful  are  to 
bring  libations  unto  her  at  any  time  between  the  rising  and  the 
setting  of  the  sun.  Those  brought  to  her  after  sunset  do  not 
reach  her;  on  the  contrary,  they  go  to  the  demons,  who  revel  in 
these  misdirected  ofiferings.^^^  We  are  informed  that  the  man 
who  dedicates  these  libations  before  sunrise  or  after  sunset  does 
no  better  deed  than  if  he  should  pour  them  down  into  the  jaws  of 
a  venomous  snake. ^'** 

Besides  invoking  Ardvi  Sura  Anahita  as  the  Yazata  of  water, 
the  waters  themselves  are  collectively  invoked  to  grant  boons. 
Zarathushtra  is  asked  to  offer  a  libation  to  the  waters  and  to 


S8 


°Yt.  5.  17-19.  104-106.  »"  Yt.  s.  8,  II,  123,  124. 

«"  Yt.  5-  85-87.  "'  Yt.  S-  91-93- 

"''  Ys.  65.  2:  Yt.  5-  87;  Ny.  4.  3-       '"  Yt.  5-  9i,  94,  95;  Nr.  68. 
''»  Yt.  S.  130-132.  "*  Nr.  4S. 

""  Yt.  5-  29-31,  41-43,  57-59,  116-118. 


140  YAZATAS 

ask  from  them  riches,  power,  and  worthy  offsprlng,^^^  a  happy 
and  a  joyful  abode  in  this  world  and  the  next,  accompanied  by 
riches  and  glory.^®® 

Animal  sacrifices  to  Anahita.  Strabo  relates  the  mode  of 
sacrificing  to  the  waters.  The  sacrificial  animal,  we  are  told, 
is  taken  to  the  bank  of  a  river  or  a  lake ;  a  ditch  is  formed 
into  which  the  animal  is  killed.  The  pieces  of  meat  are  then 
placed  on  myrtle  or  laurel,  and  holding  tamarisk  twigs  in  his 
hands,  the  priest  pours  oil  mixed  with  honey  and  milk  on  the 
ground  and  chants  the  sacred  formulas.  Great  care  is  taken  that 
no  drop  of  blood  falls  into  the  water  while  the  animal  is  being 
immolated ;  nor  must  the  mixture  of  oil,  honey,  and  milk  be  poured 
into  water.^*^    This  precaution  is  taken  lest  the  waters  be  defiled. 

Any  defilement  of  the  waters  evokes  Ardvi  Sura's  dis- 
pleasure. It  is  sinful  to  contaminate  the  waters.  Such  an  act 
incurs  great  displeasure  on  the  part  of  the  genius  of  waters. 
Those  who  wilfully  bring  dead  matter  to  the  waters  become 
unclean  for  ever  and  ever.^"^  If  a  man  while  walking  or  running, 
riding  or  driving,  happens  to  see  a  corpse  floating  in  a  river,  he 
must  enter  the  river  and  go  down  into  the  water  ankle-deep,  knee- 
deep,  waist-deep,  nay  even  a  man's  full  depth  if  need  be,  and  take 
out  the  decaying  body  and  place  it  upon  the  dry  ground  exposed 
to  the  light  of  the  sun.^^^  Herodotus  informs  us  that  the  Persians 
do  not  make  water,  wash  or  bathe  in  a  river.*"" 

Ardvi  Sura's  chariot.  Like  some  of  the  Yazatas,  Ardvi  Sura 
Anahita  has  a  chariot  of  her  own,  in  which  she  drives  forth 
in  majesty.  She  holds  the  reins  in  her  own  hands,  and  controls 
four  great  chargers  who  are  all  of  white  color,  of  the  same 
stock,  and  who  smite  the  malice  of  all  tyrants,  demons,  wicked 
men,  sorcerers,  fairies,  oppressors,  as  well  as  those  who  are 
wilfully  blind  and  wilfully  deaf.*°^  The  text  enables  us  to  un- 
derstand the  allegorical  statement  regarding  the  steeds  that  are 
yoked  to  her  chariot,  for  we  are  told  that  the  four  chargers  of 
Ardvi  Sura  are  the  wind,  the  rain,  the  cloud,  and  the  sleet ;  and 
it  was  Ahura  Mazda  who  made  them  for  her.'*"^ 


Ys.  65.  II.  ""  Vd.  7.  25-27.  *"  Yt.  5.  II,  13. 

'  Ys.  68.  13,  14,  21.        "•  Vd.  6.  26-29.  ""  Yt.  5.  120. 

Strabo,  p.  -/Z^.  ""Herod,   i.   138. 


YAZATAS  141 


Apam  Napat 


His  nature  and  work.  This  Indo-Iranian  divinity  of  waters 
seems  very  early  to  have  been  echpsed  by  Anahita,  who  remains 
the  chief  genius  presiding  over  waters  in  the  cult.  Apam  Napat's 
Vedic  counterpart  has  an  aqueous  as  well  as  an  igneous  nature. 
In  the  association  of  the  Avestan  Apam  Napat  with  the  fire  angel 
Nairyosangha,  Spiegel  sees  traces  of  this  secondary  nature.*"^ 
Apam  Napat  literally  means  the  *  offspring  of  waters,'  and  this 
genius  lives  beneath  the  waters.*^*  He  is  the  exalted  lord  and 
sovereign,  the  shining  one,  and  the  swift-horsed.*°^  He  is  the 
most  prompt  to  respond  when  invoked,*"^  and  co-operates  with 
Vayu  and  distributes  the  waters  on  earth.*"^  He  furthers  the 
riches  of  the  countries  and  allays  misfortunes ;  *°^  and  when  the 
Kingly  Glory  escapes  from  the  contest  of  Atar  and  Azhi  Dahaka 
to  the  sea  Vourukasha  it  is  Apam  Napat  who  takes  and  protects 
jj.  409  Xhis  Yazata  is  also  credited  with  having  made  and  shaped 
men.*^° 

Ahurani 

Another  water  genius.  A  female  Yazata,  though  of  no  great 
importance,  is  Ahurani,  who  impersonates  the  Ahurian  waters.*^^ 
She  is  invoked  in  company  with  the  sea  Vourukasha  and  other 
waters.*^-  The  faithful  devotee  prays  that  if  he  has  offended 
her  in  any  way,  he  is  ready  to  expiate  his  sin  by  an  offering  of 
the  libations.*^^  She  is  implored  to  descend  in  person  and  grace 
the  sacrifice  with  her  presence  and  be  propitiated  by  it.*^*  She 
is  likewise  invited  to  come  with  her  gifts  of  health,  prosperity, 
renown,  the  enlightenment  of  thoughts,  words,  and  deeds,  and 
for  the  well-being  of  the  soul.*^^  She  is  asked  to  give  offspring 
that  will  further  the  prosperity  of  the  house,  village,  town,  and 
country  and  add  to  the  renown  of  the  country.*^*^  Riches  and 
glory,  endurance  and  vigour  of  body,  a  long  life  and  the  shining, 

*"'  Arische  Periodc,  pp.  192,  193,  Leipzig,  1887;  see  Gray,  Apam  Napat, 

in  Archiv  fiir  Religionswissenschaft,  vol.  3,  pp.  18-51. 
*""  Yt.  19.  52. 

"»Ys.   I.  S;  2.  s;  65.  12;  70.  6;  Yt.  5.  72.        '*' Ys.  38.  3. 
*»«Yt.  19.  52.  "=  Ys.  68.  6. 

*"Yt.  8.  34.  *"  Ys.  68.  I. 

*"'  Yt.  13.  95-  *'*  Ys.  68.  9. 

*»'  Yt.  19.  51.  '"  Ys.  68.  3,  4. 

^^''Yt.  19.  52.  *"Ys.  68.  5. 


142  YAZATAS 

all-happy  abode  of  the  righteous  are  the  boons  that  the  devout 
ask  from  her.^^^  The  libations  offered  her  are  the  most  excel- 
lent and  the  fairest,  and  are  filtered  by  pious  men.*^^  Good 
thoughts,  good  words,  and  good  deeds  also  serve  as  her  liba- 
tions.*^® The  libations  offered  to  Ahurani  cause  joy  to  Ahura 
Mazda  and  the  Amesha  Spentas.*-" 

Zam 

The  earth  deified.  The  Avestan  term  for  earth  is  zam,  from 
which  the  angel  Zam,  or  Zamyat,  derives  her  name.  Her  per- 
sonality is  very  insipid  as  compared  with  Armaiti,  who,  as  we 
have  seen,  has  the  earth  under  her  care  and  is,  in  fact,  a  more 
active  guardian  genius  of  the  earth  than  Zamyat.  The  twenty- 
eighth  day  of  every  month  is  sacred  to  Zamyat.  The  poet  who 
composed  the  Yasht  in  honour  of  Zamyat  does  not  sing  the  glory 
of  his  heroine,  but  occupies  himself  rather  with  a  description  of 
the  mountains  of  the  world,"-^  and  with  the  celebration  of  the 
Divine  Glory  that  descends  upon  the  Aryan  race,  symbolizing  the 
greatness  of  the  kings  and  the  consecrated  piety  of  the  sainted 
souls.*^^ 

*"Ys.  68.  II.  *'*Ys.  68.  3-  "' Yt.  19.  i-7- 

*"  Ny.  I.  18.  ""  Ys.  66.  i.  *"  Yt.  19.  9-93- 


CHAPTER  XV 
FRAVASHIS 

What  are  the  Fravashis?  A  class  of  higher  intelHgences 
playing  a  most  prominent  part  in  the  Mazdayasnian  pantheon, 
and  receiving  sacrifices  and  adoration  from  the  world  of  humanity, 
is  that  of  the  Fravashis,  or  guardian  spirits  and  prototypes  of 
mankind  in  its  purest  creation.  The  Gathas  do  not  mention 
these  beings,  but  the  word  fravashi,  or  fravarti,  if  we  adopt 
the  spelling  which  certain  Western  scholars  would  uphold,  has  a 
corresponding  form  in  the  Persian  name  of  the  Median  king 
Phraortes,^  and  also  of  the  Median  rebel  mentioned  in  the  cunei- 
form inscription  of  Darius.^  The  longest  of  the  Yashts  is  dedi- 
cated to  the  Fravashis.  The  last  ten  days  of  the  year,  including 
the  five  intercalary  days,  are  specially  set  apart  for  their  cult. 
Besides,  the  nineteenth  day  of  every  month  is  consecrated  to 
their  memory,  and  the  first  month  of  the  Iranian  calendar  receives 
its  name  after  them. 

The  Fravashis  have  been  variously  compared  to  the  Vedic 
Pitrs,  the  Roman  Manes,  or  the  Platonic  Ideas.  True  though 
it  is  that  they  share  some  common  traits  with  these  and  have 
striking  resemblances  to  them,  yet,  after  all,  they  are  not  wholly 
the  same  as  these.  The  manifold  nature  of  their  cult  ofifers  a 
complicated  and  stubborn  problem  to  students  of  Iranian  theology. 

Primarily,  the  Fravashis  constitute  a  world  of  homonyms  of 
the  earthly  creations,  and  they  have  lived  as  conscious  beings  in 
the  empyrean  with  Ahura  Mazda  from  all  eternity.  The  multi- 
farious objects  of  this  world  are  so  many  terrestrial  duplicates 
of  these  celestial  originals.  The  Fravashis  constitute  the  internal 
essence  of  things,  as  opposed  to  the  contingent  and  accidental. 
Earthly  creations  are  so  many  imperfect  copies  of  these  perfect 
types.  The  Fravashis  are  not  mere  abstractions  of  thought,  but 
have  objective  existence  and  work  as  spiritual  entities  in  heaven, 

•  B.C.  647.  °  Bh.  2.  24,  31,  32,  35;  4-  52. 

143 


144  FRAVASHIS 

like  the  angels  and  archangels,  until  they  come  down  to  this  earth 
voluntarily,  as  we  may  infer  through  later  statements  in  the 
Pahlavi  texts.  They  migrate  to  this  world,  and  are  immanent  in 
the  particular  bodies  that  come  into  being  after  their  divine 
images. 

Everything  that  bears  the  hall-mark  of  belonging  to  the 
good  creation  has  its  Fravashi.  Every  object  which  has  a  name, 
common  or  proper,  is  endowed  with  a  Fravashi.  Ahura  Mazda, 
the  father  of  all  existence,  has  his  Fravashi,  and  so  have  the 
Amesha  Spentas  and  the  Yazatas.^  Even  the  sky,  waters,  earth, 
plants,  animals,  and  all  objects  of  the  kingdom  of  goodness,  are 
not  without  their  special  Fravashis.*  Thus  beginning  from  the 
supreme  godhead  down  to  the  tiniest  shrub  growing  in  the 
wilderness,  every  object  has  this  divine  element  implanted  in  it. 
It  is  only  Angra  Mainyu  and  the  demons,  who  are  evil  by  nature, 
that  are  without  it. 

We  are  not  told  whether  there  are  gradations  and  differences 
in  the  rank  of  these  intelligences.  We  are  not  informed  whether 
the  Fravashi  that  guides  the  soul  of  a  man  during  his  lifetime 
is  on  the  same  scale  as  that  of  his  horse  or  of  the  palm  tree 
growing  in  his  garden.  A  Fravashi  working  from  within  as 
the  germinating  factor,  propelling  power  in  the  mineral,  plant, 
or  animal  world,  and  one  ministering  as  a  guardian  angel  in 
man  to  lead  his  soul  to  perfection,  could  not  be  on  the  same 
level  and  find  the  same  scope  of  work.  Ahura  Mazda  and  his 
ministering  angels  certainly  do  not  need  them  as  their  guides  to 
whom  they  may  look  as  models,  though  they  may  look  to  the 
Fravashis  as  their  co-workers  in  both  the  worlds. 

During  the  lifetime  of  the  individual,  his  Fravashi  accom- 
panies him  to  this  earth.  When  a  child  is  born  its  Fravashi 
that  has  existed  from  all  eternity  now  comes  down  to  this 
earth  as  the  higher  double  of  the  child's  soul.  The  soul  is  the 
ego  proper,  the  real  I-ness. 

This  Fravashi  acts  as  a  guardian  spirit,  a  true  friend,  and 
an  unerring  guide  of  the  soul.  Hers  is  the  divine  voice  of  an 
infallible  monitor  who  now  advises  and  now  admonishes  the  soul, 
now  applauds  its  action,  and  now  raises  a  voice  of  warning  at 
a  threatening  spiritual  danger.  This  divine  agent  in  man,  we  may 
infer,  sits  enthroned  by  the  side  of  the  soul  as  an  ideal  ever 

"  Ys.  23.  2;  Yt.  13.  80,  82,  85.  *  Yt.  13.  74,  86. 


FRAVASHIS  145 

attracting  the  soul  towards  herself.  This  ideal  goal  is  the  one 
towards  which  the  soul  should  strive.  Though  living  in  the 
tabernacle  of  clay  on  earth  with  the  soul,  and  in  the  midst  of  the 
storms  of  passion  and  vice,  the  Fravashi  remains  unaffected  and 
untouched,  ever  pure  and  ever  sinless.  From  the  time  that  the 
soul  embarks  on  its  unknown  voyage  to  this  world,  as  we  can 
judge  from  Zoroastrian  teachings,  its  Fravashi  leads  it,  day 
and  night,  to  the  path  of  safety,  and  warns  it  of  the  rocks  and 
shoals,  storms  and  cyclones.  If  it  is  off  the  track,  the  Fravashi 
hoists  the  danger  signal.  The  bark  moves  smoothly  so  long  as 
the  soul  follows  the  wise  counsels  of  its  guide.  But  as  soon  as 
it  revolts  from  the  heavenly  pilot,  it  exposes  the  bark  to  danger 
at  every  turn.  The  vessel  now  drifts  along  on  the  unmapped 
ocean  without  any  one  at  the  helm  to  direct  it  to  the  right  course, 
is  tossed  on  the  roaring  waves,  is  left  to  the  mercy  of  the  chang- 
ing wind,  and  is  in  danger  of  being  wrecked. 

The  soul  alone  is  responsible  for  the  good  or  evil  deeds  done 
in  this  w'orld,  and  it  receives  reward  or  retribution  in  the  next 
world  according  to  its  desert.  At  the  death  of  the  individual, 
when  the  soul  thus  advances  to  meet  its  fate,  its  guardian 
Fravashi  returns  to  the  celestial  realm,  but  lives  now  an  in- 
dividualized life  as  the  Fravashi  of  a  certain  person  who  has 
lived  his  short  span  of  life  on  earth. 

It  may  be  noted,  however,  that  a  few  Avestan  passages  seem 
to  identify  the  souls  and  the  Fravashis  of  the  dead,  a  view  which, 
as  we  shall  see,  comes  to  prevail  more  and  more  in  the  Pahlavi 
period.  In  fact,  we  may  perhaps  detect  the  interpolator's  hand 
in  the  passages  concerned. ^^ 

Qualities  of  the  Fravashis.  The  Fravashis  are  usually  desig- 
nated as  the  good,  valiant,  and  holy.  They  are  the  liberal,  the 
most  valiant,  the  most  holy,  the  most  powerful,  the  most  mighty, 
and  the  most  effective.^  They  are  the  swiftly  moving  when  in- 
voked, the  bestowers  of  victory,  health,  and  glory.^  Their  friend- 
ship is  good  and  lasting,  and  they  are  beautiful,  health-giving,  of 
high  renown,  and  vanquishing  in  battle.'^  They  are  efficacious,  the 
most  beneficent,  and  the  smiters  of  the  arms  of  the  tyrant  foes.® 
They  are  girt  with  the  blessings  of  piety  as  wide  as  the  earth, 

'aYs.  i6.  7;  26.  7,  II;  71.  23;  Yt.  22.  39.  ^  Yt.  13.  30. 

°  Yt.  13.  75.  '  Yt.  13.  31 

•Yt.  13.  23,  24. 


146  FRAVASHIS 

as  long  as  a  river,  and  as  high  as  the  sun.°  They  are  the  strongest 
in  moving  onwards,  the  least  failing  wielders  of  weapons,  the 
invulnerable,  the  shield-bearing,  clad  with  iron  helmets  and 
weapons. ^°'^^  Their  power  and  efficiency  are  simply  inconceiv- 
able and  beyond  description.^^ 

Their  work.  Like  the  higher  celestial  beings,  the  Fravashis 
are  allotted  their  respective  tasks  in  the  creation  of  Ahura  Mazda. 
They  are  the  ones  who  stood  ready  for  help  to  the  godhead 
when  the  two  spirits  first  met  to  create  the  universe.^^  It  is 
through  them  that  Ahura  Mazda  maintains  the  sky  and  the 
earth. ^*  Ahura  Mazda  expressly  is  stated  as  saying  that,  had 
they  not  rendered  him  help,  animals  and  men  could  not  have 
continued  to  exist,  because  the  wicked  Druj  would  have  smitten 
them  to  death,  except  for  the  guardianship  of  the  Fravashis. ^^ 
The  waters  flow,  and  the  plants  spring  forth,  and  the 
winds  blow  through  their  glory. ^^  Through  their  radiance 
and  glory  females  conceive  offspring,  and  have  easy  child- 
birth.^^ Through  them  it  is  that  Ahura  Mazda  forms  and  de- 
velops the  organs  of  the  child  in  the  womb  of  its  mother,  and 
protects  it  from  death ;  ^^  moreover,  patriotic  sons,  destined  to 
win  distinction,  are  born  unto  women  on  their  account.^^  They 
first  gave  movement  to  the  waters  that  stood  for  a  long  time  with- 
out flowing.-"  The  trees  that  stood  without  growing  began  to 
grow,  and  the  stars  and  the  moon  and  the  sun  that  had  stood 
motionless,  owing  to  the  opposition  of  the  demons,  received 
their  movement  through  them  ^^  and  have  ever  since  gone  along 
their  paths  of  progress  owing  to  the  influence  of  the  Fravashis. ^- 
They  protect  the  river  Ardvi  Sura  Anahita,-^  and  watch  over  the 
sea  \^ourukasha  and  the  stars  Haptoiringa.-* 

Fravashis  help  the  living.  These  spiritual  forces  wield  great 
power  in  both  the  worlds,  rendering  great  help  to  those  who 
invoke  them,  and  keeping  watch  and  ward  about  the  abodes 
in  which  they  once  had  lived.  In  the  field  of  battle,  moreover, 
they  help  the  fighting  armies  to  victory.  Awful  and  vanquishing 
in  battle,  they  smite  and  rout  the  foes,  and  bring  triumph  unto 

•Yt.  13.  32.  '"Yt.  13.  12,  13.  =°Yt.  13.  53,  54- 

"-"Yt.  13.  26,  45.  '°Yt.  13.  14.  "Yt.  13.  55-58. 

'=Yt.  13.  64.  ''Yt.  13.  IS.  "  Yt.  13.  16. 

"  Yt.  13.  76.  '' Yt.  13.  II,  22.  '»Yt.  13.  4- 

"  Yt.  13.  I,  2,  9,  22,  28,  29.       "  Yt.  13.  16.  "  Yt.  13.  59,  60. 


FRAVASHIS  147 

those  who  invoke  them."'  The  heroes  invoke  them  to  succour 
them  in  the  battle.^®  When  the  ruHng  chief  who  finds  himself 
in  danger  on  the  battlefield  invokes  them  with  offerings,  they 
come  flying  unto  him  like  winged  birds  and  fight  gallantly  in  his 
behalf  against  his  foes.  They  become  to  him  a  weapon  and  a 
shield;  they  guard  him  on  every  side,  protecting  him  with  the 
strength  that  a  thousand  men  would  use  in  guarding  one  man,  so 
that  neither  sword,  nor  club,  nor  arrow,  nor  spear,  nor  any 
stone  may  injure  him.^"  They  rush  down  in  great  numbers  in 
the  thick  of  the  battle  to  crush  the  foes.-^  They  cause  havoc  in 
the  battlefield,  and  smite  the  malice  of  the  demons  and  wicked 
men.^'^  The  nations  against  whom  the  Fravashis  march  are 
smitten  by  their  fifties,  and  hundreds,  and  thousands,  and  tens 
of  thousands,  and  myriads.^"  Both  the  vanquisher  who  pursues 
his  foe  and  the  vanquished  who  flees  from  the  field  invoke  them 
to  grant  them  swiftness  in  running.^^  The  Fravashis  turn  to 
help  that  side  which  has  first  invoked  them  with  uplifted  hands 
and  heart-felt  devotion.^^  They  hasten  for  help  to  the  righteous, 
but  for  harm  to  the  wicked.^^  They  are  ever  anxious  to  aid 
their  kindred  and  countrymen,  and  they  give  course  to  the  waters 
so  that  they  may  flow  to  the  land  they  inhabited  during  their 
lifetime.^* 

Ahura  Mazda  advises  Zarathushtra  to  invoke  them  for  help 
whenever  he  finds  himself  in  danger.^'  When  the  supplicant  needs 
help  of  some  specific  nature,  he  invokes  the  Fravashi  of  one  whom 
he  knows  to  have  been  specially  endowed  with  the  corresponding 
virtue  during  his  lifetime.  For  instance,  Yima's  Fravashi  is  in- 
voked to  enable  one  to  withstand  drought  and  death, ^®  because 
that  illustrious  king  is  reported  to  have  driven  away  these  calami- 
ties from  his  kingdom.  The  Fravashi  of  king  Thraetaona  who 
is  generally  confounded  by  the  later  writers  with  Thrita,  the  re- 
puted inventor  of  medicine,  is  invoked  for  help  against  itches, 
fevers,  and  other  diseases."  Similarly,  the  Fravashis  of  other 
great  men  are  invoked  for  help  in  the  respective  sphere  in  which 
they  are  believed  to  have  been  conspicuous  during  their  lives.'® 

Fravashis  of  the  dead  long  for  sacrifices.    These  are  eager 

"  Yt.  13.  40.  '"Yt.  13.  48.  "Yt.  13.  19,  20. 

='Yt.  13.  23,  27.  '^Yt.  13.  35-  "Yt.  13.  130. 

=  ^Yt.  13.  63.  69-72.  =n^t.  13.  47.  "  Yt.  13.  131 ;  WFr.  2.  2. 

='  Yt.  13.  40.  "  Yt.  13.  39-  '"  Yt.  13.  104,  105,  132-138. 

"  Yt.  13.  ZZ.  "  Yt.  13.  65-68. 


148  FRAVASHIS 

to  communicate  with  the  living  among  whom  they  have  Uved  on 
this  earth.  They  desire  that  their  descendants  and  kindred  shall 
not  forget  them.  They  seek  their  praise  and  prayer,  sacrifice  and 
invocation.3^  They  come  down  flying  from  their  heavenly  abode 
to  the  earth  on  the  last  ten  days  of  the  Zoroastrian  calendar, 
which  are  specially  consecrated  to  them,  and  interest  themselves 
in  the  welfare  of  the  living. 

Fravashis  bless  if  satiated,  but  curse  when  offended.  The 
Fravashis  are  entreated  by  the  living  to  be  propitious  to  them. 
They  are  besought  to  come  down  from  the  heavenly  regions  to 
the  sacrifices  held  in  their  honour.  If  they  are  propitiated  with 
offerings,  they  bless  their  supplicants  with  riches  and  flocks,  horses 
and  chariots,  and  with  offspring  who  will  serve  God  and  their  coun- 
try. *''  Those  who  piously  solicit  their  benedictions  receive  these 
in  abundance,  for  the  Fravashis  bring  down  unto  them  from  the 
spiritual  world  the  very  best  of  blessings.  But  those  who  neglect 
or  offend  them  are  cursed;  and  their  curse  is  terrible  indeed. 
It  brings  untold  harm  to  the  family.  Loving  as  the  Fravashis  are 
when  propitiated,  they  become  dreadful  when  offended.*^  Yet 
they  never  harm  until  they  are  vexed.*-  The  wise,  therefore, 
propitiate  them  to  gain  their  good-will,  and  placate  them  to  allay 
their  wrath.  The  householder  prays  that  they  may  walk  satisfied 
in  his  house,  that  they  may  not  depart  offended  from  his  abode,  but 
may  leave  the  house  in  joy,  carrying  the  sacrifice  and  prayer  to 
Ahura  Mazda  and  the  Amesha  Spentas.*^  They  are  implored  to 
accept  the  offerings  and  be  propitiated  thereby.**  They  are  asked 
to  come  with  riches  as  widespread  as  the  earth,  as  vast  as  the 
rivers,  as  high  as  the  sun,  in  order  to  help  the  righteous  and 
harm  the  wicked.*^  Those  who  honour  them  attain  to  power 
and  greatness.*® 

Fravashis  of  the  righteous  ones  of  one's  family,  clan,  town, 
or  country  invoked  individually.  The  survivors  of  the  dead 
commemorate  the  pious  memory  of  their  departed  ancestors.  The 
members  of  a  family  sacrifice  unto  their  elders,  the  citizens 
laud  their  patriots  and  heroes,  and  the  devout  revere  the  sacred 
memory  of  their  sainted  dead.  The  latter  part  of  the  Yasht 
that  is  consecrated  to  the  Fravashis  treats  of  the  great  person- 

"•  Yt.  13.  49,  so.  ■"  Yt.  13.  30.  ■"  Ys.  60.  4- 

*°Yt.  13.  51,  52.  *'Yt.  13.  156,  157-  "Yt.  13.  18. 

"  Yt.  13.  31-  "  Yt.  13.  145,  147. 


FRAVASHIS  149 

alities  of  Iran  that  have  ilkimined  the  pages  of  her  history  in 
various  v^ays. 

Fravashis  of  the  righteous  ones  of  all  ages  and  all  places 
invoked  collectively.  These  celestial  beings  are  invoked  in  a 
body  by  the  faithful.  The  supplicant  generally  winds  up  his 
prayers  by  announcing  that  he  sacrifices  unto  the  Fravashis  of 
the  righteous  from  the  time  of  the  first  man,  Gaya  Maretan,  up 
to  the  time  of  the  advent  of  Saoshyant  at  the  end  of  the  world.^^ 
Not  only  are  the  Fravashis  of  the  departed  ones  commemorated, 
but  those  of  living  persons,  as  well  as  those  of  persons  that  are 
still  to  be  born  in  future  ages,  are  also  equally  honoured  with 
praise  and  invocation.^^ 

In  addition  to  this,  the  righteous  ones  of  all  the  Aryan  coun- 
tries, nay,  what  is  still  more,  even  those  who  are  righteous  among 
the  Turanians,  the  national  foes  of  the  Iranians,  receive  their 
share  in  this  homage  to  the  saintly  ones.*^  The  commemoration 
list  ends  with  explicitly  mentioning  the  righteous  ones  of  all  the 
countries  of  the  world.'"'  The  individual  is  thus  taught  to  recog- 
nize his  fellowship  with  the  human  beings  of  all  ages  and  all 
places.  Herodotus  attests  that  a  Persian  does  not  pray  for  him- 
self, but  for  the  whole  nation  and  his  king.^^ 

The  faithful  may  infer  from  the  spirit  that  runs  through  the 
Zoroastrian  scriptures  that  there  are  no  breaks  in  the  life  story 
of  humanity.  Each  individual  is  a  unit  in  the  long  line  of 
countless  generations  between  the  first  and  the  last  man.  He 
realizes  his  individuality  in  his  own  age  and  place.  Each  gen- 
eration is  the  product  of  the  past  and  parent  of  the  future.  It 
finds  itself  placed  in  the  midst  of  the  religious,  social,  economical, 
and  political  institutions  of  the  past  and  inherits  the  accumulated 
heritage  of  the  wisdom  and  civilization  of  the  collective  hu- 
manity that  has  lived  before  it.  The  past  has  made  the  present 
in  body,  mind,  and  spirit ;  and  the  present  has  to  make  the  future 
physically,  mentally,  and  spiritually.  No  generation  can  live  ex- 
clusively by  itself  and  for  itself.  To  the  past  it  owes  a  deep 
debt  of  gratitude,  to  the  future  it  is  bound  by  parental  duty.  A 
wise  parent  instinctively  works  for  the  good  of  his  children,  and 
no  age  can  be  regardless  of  the  material  and  spiritual  welfare  of 


48 


Yt.  13.  14s.  ""  Yt.  13.  144- 

Ys.  24.  5;  26.  6;  Vsp.  II.  7;  Yt.  13.  21.         "  i.  132. 
Yt.  13.  143. 


ISO  FRAVASHIS 

those  that  are  to  follow  it  in  time.  Each  age  has  its  righteous 
persons  by  the  million,  who  further  the  human  progress.  The 
Fravashis  of  such  only  are  commemorated.  Those  that  have 
wilfully  chosen  to  tread  the  path  of  wickedness  and  hamper  the 
onward  march  of  humanity  towards  perfection  do  not  share  this 
honour,  the  highest  that  collective  humanity  confers  upon  its 
dutiful  children  of  all  ages  and  places. 

Dual  nature  of  the  Zoroastrian  ancestor-worship.  The 
commemoration  of  the  Fravashis  of  the  dead  represents  but  one 
phase  of  ancestor-worship.  As  we  have  already  seen,  this  spirit- 
ual prototype  of  man  is  something  apart  from  and  above  his  soul. 
It  is  the  soul  that  constitutes  the  individuality  of  his  person,  and 
it  is  natural  for  the  survivors  to  feel  that  they  should  look  to  the 
soul  of  the  dead  for  the  continuity  of  communication  with  them. 
The  sacrifices  and  prayers  ofifered  to  the  Fravashis  are  primarily 
for  soliciting  their  help  and  favour.  Those  offered  to  the  souls  of 
the  dead  on  the  anniversaries  soon  take  a  vicarious  form  and 
rest  on  the  central  idea  that  the  performance  of  rites  by  the 
descendants  enables  the  souls  of  the  dead  to  progress  from  a 
lower  to  a  higher  place  in  the  next  world.  Thus  man's  Fravashi 
and  soul  both  are  thought  to  claim  respectively  their  commemora- 
tion from  the  relatives  of  the  departed  one.  These  two  distinct 
forms  of  ancestor-worship — the  one  of  invoking  the  Fravashis  of 
the  dead  for  the  good  of  the  living,  and  the  other  of  sacrificing 
unto  the  souls  with  the  desire  of  contributing  to  their  betterment 
in  the  next  world — often  overlap  each  other.  The  intermingling 
of  the  two  becomes  so  complete  that  the  souls  and  not  the 
Fravashis  are  supposed  to  come  down  to  the  rituals  even  on  the 
days  originally  consecrated  to  the  Fravashis.  In  fact,  their  cult 
is  practically  forgotten,  and  the  souls  alone  receive  the  entire 
share  of  the  rituals  performed  by  the  living. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
PERSONIFIED  ABSTRACTIONS 

The  infinity  of  time  and  the  immensity  of  space  personified. 
Time  and  Space  seem  to  have  been  the  alternative  answers  to  the 
early  gropings  of  the  primitive  Iranian  thinkers  to  find  some 
solution  for  the  problem  of  the  origin  of  things  in  the  universe ; 
and  these  two  elements,  Time  and  Space,  are  incorporated  in  the 
Zoroastrian  theology  of  the  Later  Avesta  after  being  shorn  of 
the  power  assigned  to  them  in  the  pre-Zoroastrian  period.  In 
the  extant  Avestan  texts  they  hardly  have  any  individuality. 
They  are  barren  concepts  sharing  invocations  along  with  the 
celestial  beings  and  sanctified  objects.  The  later  works,  however, 
speak  of  sects  flourishing  as  late  as  the  Sasanian  period  and  even 
much  later,  who  held  these  concepts  as  the  highest  categories 
in  religious  thought  and  drew  the  names  of  their  sects  from  them. 

Zrvan  Akarana.  This  genius  of  Boundless  Time,  like  several 
abstract  ideas  which  are  in  course  of  time  personified  and  yet  are 
not  classified  among  the  Yazatas,  is  not  listed  as  an  angel.  He  is 
often  invoked  by  name  in  company  with  Space  and  Vayu,  the 
genius  of  wind.^  He  has  made  the  path  which  the  wicked  soul  has 
to  traverse,-  and  the  plants  grow  in  the  manner  that  he  has  or- 
dained according  to  the  will  of  Ahura  Mazda  and  the  archangels.* 

The  Avesta  distinguishes  sharply  between  two  different  kinds 
of  time,  infinite  and  finite.  The  term  zrvan  akarana,  '  boundless 
time,'  is  also  used  in  its  ordinary  meaning  of  the  unlimited  time 
or  eternity.  It  is  said  that  Ahura  Mazda  created  the  sacred 
spell  Ahuna  Vairya  in  the  Boundless  Time.* 

Zrvan  Daregho-khvadhata,  '  Time  of  Long  Duration,'  on  the 
other  hand,  is  a  limited  period  portioned  out  from  the  Boundless 
Time.  ,  This  finite  time  is  also  personified  and  is  invoked  by 
name  along  with  the  Boundless  Time.^     The  Younger  Avestan 

'  Ys.  72.  10;  Vd.  19.  13;  Ny.  I.  8.        ■•  Vd.  19.  9. 

'  Vd.  19.  29.  '  Ys.  72.  10 ;  Ny.  i.  8. 

'  Yt.  13.  56. 

151 


152  PERSONIFIED  ABSTRACTIONS 

texts  do  not  furnish  us  with  any  data  to  enable  us  to  form  any 
idea  of  this  concept,  but  we  learn  from  the  later  scriptures  that 
it  refers  to  the  world's  cycle  of  twelve  thousand  years. 

Thwasha.  Space,  or  the  infinite  expanse,  is  faintly  personified 
under  the  name  Thwasha  Khvadhata,  or  Sovereign  Space.  It  is 
generally  invoked  along  with  the  genius  of  time.®  In  one  place 
it  is  depicted  as  going  alongside  of  Mithra.^  Like  Time,  it  is  not 
ranked  among  the  angels. 

•  Ys.  72.  10 ;  Vd.  19.  13 ;  Ny.  I.  8.         '  Yt.  10.  66. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
BAGHAS 

The  divinities.  One  of  the  names  for  divinity  in  general 
is  Bagha,  literally  meaning  '  dispenser.'  We  can  trace  its  history 
far  back  to  the  Indo-European  period.  Unlike  the  term  Yazata, 
which  retains  its  place  as  a  divine  appellation  throughout  the 
history  of  Zoroastrianism,  Bagha  soon  loses  its  significance  in 
the  Avestan  texts.  The  inscriptions  of  the  Achaemenian  kings 
do  not  speak  of  the  heavenly  beings  as  Yazatas,  but  they  speak  of 
them  under  the  designation  Bagha,  as  noted  below.  The  Avestan 
texts,  on  the  contrary,  use  the  term  bagha  hardly  six  times 
throughout  the  extant  literature,  and  by  the  time  that  we  reach 
the  Pahlavi  period  Bagha  is  used  to  represent  the  idea  of  divinity 
in  general,^  and  also  as  a  title  of  the  Sasanian  monarchs  who 
zealously  upheld  the  divine  right  of  kings.^^ 

Ahura  Mazda  himself  is  a  Bagha.^''  Baga,  the  cognate  of  the 
Avestan  Bagha,  is  most  freely  applied  to  Ahura  Mazda  in  the  Old 
Persian  Inscriptions.  Ahura.Mazda  is  the  greatest  of  all  Bagas.^ 
Besides  the  supreme  godhead,  Mithra  is  expressly  mentioned  as  a 
Baga.^  This  does  not  exhaust  the  list  of  the  Baghas,  for,  though 
not  mentioned  by  name,  the  texts  refer  to  others  besides  these  two.* 
In  the  Later  Avesta,  compound  forms  of  Bagha  are  also  found, 
which  signify  '  allotted  by  God.'  ^  Bagabigna  and  Bagabukhsha, 
the  names  of  persons,  and  Bagayadi,  the  name  of  a  month,  are 
the  instances  of  the  Baga  compounds  that  are  found  in  the 
Inscriptions.^ 

•  Sg.  4.  8,  29;  10.  69;  Dk.  SBE.  vol.  2,7-  bk.  8.  15.  i,  p.  34. 

*^  Sg.  10.  70;  cf.  Alordtmann,  Ziir  Pehlevi-Munzkunde,  in  ZDMG.  34. 
1-162. 

^^Ys.  10.  10;  70.  I. 

^  Dar.  Pers.  d.  i ;  Xer.  Elv.  i ;  Xer.  Van.  i. 

°  Yt.  10.  141;  Artaxerxes  Ochus,  Pers.  a  [b].  4. 

*  Yt.  10.  141;  Bh.  4.  61,  62;  Dar.  Pers.  d.  3;  Xer.  Pers.  b.  3;  Xer. 
Van.  3- 

°  Vsp.  7-  3 ;  Yt.  8.  35 ;  Vd.  19.  2Z ;  21.  5,  9,  13. 
•Bh.  4.  18 J  I.  13. 

153 


154  BAGHAS 

Bagha  plays  an  insignificant  part  as  Fate  personified  in  the 
Younger  Avesta,  although  this  personification  becomes  more 
pronounced  as  the  personification  of  Fate  in  the  later  Pahlavi 
period.  There  is,  however,  a  solitary  passage  in  the  Vendidad, 
and  it  may  be  late,  which  tells  us  that  a  man  who  is  drowned  in 
water  or  burnt  by  fire  is  not  killed  by  water  or  fire,  but  by  FateJ 
Cambyses  said  that  it  was  not  in  the  power  of  man  to  counteract 

Fate.« 

The  term  bagha,  moreover,  is  also  frequently  used  in  its  ordi- 
nary meaning,  '  portion,'  '  allotment.' 

'  Vd.  5.  8,  9.  '  Herodotus,  3.  65. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

EVIL 

Dualism,  in  evolution.  The  original  Gathic  conception  of  the 
reality  of  evil  is  more  emphasized  by  the  theologians  of  the 
Later  Avestan  period,  and  the  personality  of  the  Prince  of  Evil 
becomes  at  the  same  time  more  pronounced.  The  hardest  crux 
that  confronts  the  Zoroastrian  divines,  as  it  does  every  theologian, 
is,  how  Ahura  Mazda,  the  father  of  goodness,  can  be  made  re- 
sponsible for  the  existence  of  evil  in  this  world.  The  prophet 
had  already  taught  the  existence  of  an  independent  power  as  the 
originator  of  evil.  The  idea  inherent  in  this  teaching  is  now  elab- 
orately worked  out  until  every  object  that  is  branded  by  man  as 
evil  is  ascribed  to  the  agency  of  the  Evil  Spirit.  A  ban  is  put  upon 
everything  in  the  universe  that  is  opposed  to  Asha's  realm  of  right- 
eousness, even  to  the  detail  of  noxious  creatures  and  poisonous 
plants.  They  belong  to  the  evil  creation.  Herodotus  and  Plutarch 
inform  us  that  the  Magi  held  it  a  virtue  to  kill  noxious  creatures.^ 
From  the  standpoint  of  evil,  therefore,  it  is  easy  to  understand 
that  such  a  usurper  king  as  Azhi  Dahaka,  who  took  a  fiendish 
delight  in  feasting  his  eyes  upon  the  most  atrocious  crimes 
perpetrated  under  his  rule,  was  sent  to  this  world  by  the  arch- 
fiend as  the  apostle  of  destruction  and  death.-  Hail  and  hurri- 
cane, cyclone  and  thunderstorm,  plague  and  pestilence,  famine 
and  drought,  in  fact  everything  that  harms  man  and  decimates 
population,  belong  to  the  realm  of  evil.  Angra  Mainyu  has 
cast  an  evil  eye  upon  the  good  creation  of  Ahura  Mazda,  and  by 
his  glance  of  malice  introduced  corruption  and  disease  into 
the  universe.^  The  opposition  between  the  Good  and  Evil  Spirit 
is  so  pronounced  that  distinctive  linguistic  expressions  are  now 
used  for  both.  There  are  separate  words  used  for  the  organs, 
movements,  and  speech  of  the  Good  Spirit  and  his  creation,  and 
for  those  of  the  Evil  Spirit  and  his  world ;  and  this  rule  applies  to 

^  Herod,  i.  140;  Plutarch,  Is.  et  Os.  46.       '  Vd.  22.  2,  9,  15. 
*Ys.  9.  8;  Yt.  17.  34. 

15s 


IS6  EVIL 

wicked  men  in  general  as  well  as  to  the  noxious  creatures.  The 
man  of  the  kingdom  of  goodness  '  speaks,'  but  the  wicked  one 
'  howls  '  or  '  roars  ' ;  the  former  '  eats/  but  the  latter  '  devours  ' ; 
the  good  one  '  walks/  but  the  wicked  '  rushes  ' ;  the  one  has  a 
'  head/  but  the  other  has  a  '  skull ' ;  the  one  dwells  in  a  '  house/ 
the  other  in  a  '  burrow.'  *  Thus  the  antithesis  between  good  and 
evil  becomes  even  more  and  more  prominent.  It  is  indelible. 
Evil  remains  as  real  a  factor  as  good,  as  independent,  and  as 
active.  There  is  a  pronounced  antithesis  and  active  warfare  be- 
tween the  two  rival  spirits,  and  reconciliation  or  peace  between 
them  is  impossible.  Every  prayer  in  the  Younger  Avesta  begins 
with  the  exhortation  to  propitiate  the  Good  Spirit  and  abjure  the 
Evil  One.  Man  is  warned  to  guard  himself  from  the  wiles  of 
Angra  Mainyu. 

The  earliest  non-Zoroastrian  writers  speak  of  Zoroastrian- 
ism  as  the  religion  of  dualism.  Early  Greek  writers,  who,  we 
can  safely  assert,  were  contemporary  at  least  with  the  Later  Aves- 
tan  period,  speak  of  the  religion  of  Iran  as  based  on  the  belief  in 
two  rival  spirits.  Hippolytus  relates,  on  the  authority  of  Aris- 
toxenus,^  that  the  Persians  believed  in  two  primeval  causes  of  ex- 
istence, the  first  being  Light,  or  the  father,  and  the  second,  Dark- 
ness, the  mother.^  On  the  authority  of  Diogenes  Laertius  we 
have  the  assurance  that  Eudoxus  and  Aristotle  wrote  of  these 
two  powers  as  Zeus,  or  Oromazdes,  and  Hades,  or  Areimanios.^ 
Plutarch  8  narrates,  in  the  same  tone,  that  Oromazdes  came 
from  light,  and  Areimanios  from  darkness.  The  Good  Spirit 
created  six  archangels  and  other  divine  beings,  and  the  Evil  One 
created  as  a  counterpoise  to  them  six  arch-fiends,  and  other  in- 
fernal creatures,  and  the  devil's  activity  of  counter-creation  ex- 
tended also  to  the  physical  world,  for  in  opposition  to  the  creation 
of  good  animals  and  plants  by  Oromazdes,  he  brought  forth 
noxious  creatures  and  poisonous  plants.  His  opposition  per- 
meates the  entire  creation  and  will  last  up  to  the  end  of  time, 
when  he  will  be  defeated  and  be  made  to  disappear.^     Plutarch 

*  See  Frachtenberg,  Etymological  Studies  in  Ormazdian  and  Ahri- 
manian  words  in  the  Avesta  in  Spiegel  Memorial  Volume,  pp.  269-289, 
Bombay,  1908. 

"  About  320  B.C. 

*  Refutatio  Haeresium,  i.  2. 
'  Proaeni.  8. 

*  A.D.  46-120. 

*  Is.  et  Os.  46,  47. 


EVIL  157 

himself  further  mentions,  on  the  authority  of  Theopompus/°  the 
loss  of  whose  excursus  dealing  with  Zoroastrianism  in  antiquity 
is  still  to  be  deplored,  that  the  good  God  ruled  for  thr6e  thousand 
years,  and  the  Evil  One  for  another  three  thousand  years.  At 
the  expiration  of  six  thousand  years,  they  entered  into  a  con- 
flict which  still  goes  on,  and  which  will  end  in  the  final  annihilation 
of  the  fiend. ^^  Diogenes  confirms  this  statement. ^^  All  this  has 
its  historic  bearing  upon  the  whole  realm  of  Zoroastrianism  in 
its  relation  to  the  great  religions  of  the  world,  for  each  and  all 
of  them  have  had  to  deal  with  the  problem  of  evil  in  its  applica- 
tion to  the  life  of  man. 

> 

Angra  Mainyu 

The  titles  of  the  Evil  Spirit.  Angra  Mainyu  is  the 
Demon  of  Demons, ^^  who  has  crept  into  the  creation  of  the  Good 
Spirit.^*  His  standing  epithet  is  '  full  of  death.'  ^^  He  is  the 
worst  liar.^**  He  is  a  tyrant,^^  of  evil  creation,^^  of  evil  religion,^* 
and  of  evil  knowledge,""  and  of  malignity,-^  as  well  as  inveterately 
wicked.-^  He  is  the  doer  of  evil  deeds. -^  The  north  is  the  seat 
of  Angra  Mainyu,^*  where  he  lives  with  his  evil  brood  in  the 
bowels  of  the  earth  to  make  onslaughts  on  the  world  of  right- 
eousness.^^ 

The  counter-creations  of  Angra  Mainyu.  The  Avestan 
texts  persistently  speak  of  the  creations  of  the  two  spirits,  Spenta 
Mainyu  and  Angra  Mainyu ;  ^*^  moreover  the  first  chapter  of  the 
Vendidad  contains  a  list  of  the  good  places  created  by  Ahura 

'°  300  B.C. 

"  Is.  et  Os.  47. 
*^  Proaem.  9. 
-Vd.  19.  1,43- 
'*  Yt.  13.  77. 

"Ys.  61.  2;  Yt.  3.  13;  10.  97;  13.  71;  15.  56;  17.  19;  18.  2;  Vd.  I.  3; 
19.  1,43,  44;  22.  2;  Aog.  4,  28. 
'"  Yt.  3-  13. 
'' Vd.  19.  3- 
^»Ys.  61.  2;  Vd.  19.  6. 
"WFr.  4.  2. 
"  Aog.  4. 

"Yt.  17.  19;  Vd.  II.  10;  19.  I,  5,  9,  12,  44. 
"Ys.  27.  i;  Yt.  10.  118;  13.  71,  78. 
"  Yt.  19.  97. 
"  Vd.  19.  I. 
"Yt.  19,  44- 
"  Ys.  57.  17;  Yt.  II.  12;  13.  76;  15.  3,  43,  44;  Vd.  3.  20;  13.  I,  2,  5,  6,  16. 


IS8  EVIL 

Mazda,  over  against  which  the  Evil  One  counter-created  various 
physical  and  moral  evils  to  thwart  the  peace  and  happiness  of 
the  good  creation.  It  is  the  Evil  Spirit  who  has  infected  the 
bodies  of  mortals  with  disease  and  decay ;  ^^  it  is  from  him 
that  come  deformities  of  body ;  ^*  and  he  is  ever  perpetrating 
wrong  against  the  world  of  goodness.  Angra  Mainyu  cor- 
rupts the  moral  nature  of  man.  He  it  was  who  called  into  exist- 
ence the  tyrant  Azhi  Dahaka  for  the  destruction  of  the  creatures 
of  righteousness.'®  The  rival  spirits  have  divided  their  sphere 
of  possession  and  activity  of  the  wind  of  Vayu,  a  part  of  which 
belongs  to  the  Good  Spirit,  whereas  the  other  part  is  included  in 
the  kingdom  of  the  Evil  Spirit.^" 

Angra  Mainyu  grovels  before  Zarathushtra.  In  his  ma- 
licious thoughts  and  teachings,  his  intellect  and  faith,  his  words 
and  deeds,  and  in  conscience  and  soul,  the  Evil  Spirit  is  exactly 
and  diametrically  the  opposite  of  Ahura  Mazda. ^^  Angra 
Mainyu  practises  deceitful  wiles,  and  incites  man  to  rebel  against 
the  divine  authority.  As  the  arch-betrayer  he  allures  man  to 
abjure  the  Good  Spirit.  On  the  advent  of  Zarathushtra,  as  the 
true  prophet,  this  soul  of  righteousness  stupefies  him,  because 
he  sees  in  the  earthly  embodiment  of  Ahura  Mazda's  will  his 
eternal  foe,  who  will  by  holy  teaching  and  preaching  threaten  the 
overthrow  of  his  infernal  empire  of  wickedness.^-  The  Prince  of 
Darkness,  in  tempting  Zarathushtra,  promises  him  the  sovereignty 
of  the  world,  if  he  will  only  reject  the  faith  of  Mazda;  but  the 
prophet  replies  that  he  will  not  renounce  the  excellent  religion, 
either  for  body  or  life.^^  Angra  Mainyu  determines  to  over- 
throw such  faith  on  the  part  of  the  prophet  to  whom  he  is  so 
opposed,  and  resolves  to  wreak  vengeance  upon  him.  He 
clamours  for  the  death  of  the  sage,  and  lets  loose  legions  of. 
demons  to  assail  him.  But  the  chosen  of  Ahura  Mazda  is  found 
to  be  an  impregnable  rock,  not  to  be  moved.  The  blessed  one 
scatters  his  assailants  in  flight.  They  rush  howling  and  weeping 
to  the  regions  of  darkness,  or  hell.^*    Defeated  and  dismayed,  the 


"  Vd.  20.  3;  22.  2. 

"  Vd.  2.  29,  37. 

"  Ys.  9-  8. 

'»Ys.  22.  24;  25.  5;  Yt.  15.  5,  42,  57; 

Sr.  I.  21; 

2.  21. 

=  '  Ys.  19.  15- 

"Yt.  17.  19- 

"  Vd.  19.  6,  7. 

"  Vd.  19.  46,  47- 

EVIL  159 

Evil  Spirit  bewails  that  Zarathushtra  alone  has  accomplished 
what  all  the  Yazatas  together  were  unable  to  do ;  in  other  words, 
he  is  the  only  one  who  has  baffled  the  devil  and  his  infernal 
crew.^^  At  the  beginning  of  creation  the  recital  of  Ahuna  Vairya 
by  Mazda  put  Angra  Mainyu  to  flight,^^  and  as  a  consequence 
the  Spirit  of  Evil  crouches  in  abject  servility  to  Mazda's  prophet, 
who  has  hurled  him  backward  into  the  darkest  abyss. 

Angra  Mainyu's  final  defeat.  Since  the  time  when  the  Evil 
Spirit  broke  into  the  world  of  Righteousness,^^  a  constant  war 
is  being  waged  against  the  hosts  of  Wickedness  by  the  powers  of 
Righteousness,  as  shall  be  to  the  last  when  Righteousness  shall 
triumph  over  Wickedness.  The  faithful,  accordingly,  pray  that 
Wickedness  may  be  routed  and  Righteousness  may  rule  for  all 
in  all.  Every  child  of  man  has  had  his  share  in  this  universal 
strife  and  struggle.  Those  that  through  ignorance  have  not  been 
steadfast  in  the  path  of  goodness,  and  have  been  led  to  revolt 
from  their  creator,  are  those  that  have  been  victims  to  the  clutch 
of  Angra  Mainyu.  As  the  world  progresses  towards  the  true 
knowledge  of  the  excellent  Faith,  mankind  will  embrace  Right- 
eousness and  thus  weaken  the  power  of  Wickedness.  The  per- 
fection of  mankind  will  thus  come  to  pass ;  and  finally  the 
Father  of  Evil  and  all  imperfection,  having  been  deserted  by  his 
misguided  followers,  will  be  impotent.  This  will  be  the  final 
crisis  at  which  the  Sovereign  of  Evil,  bereft  of  power,  will  bow 
to  his  final  fate,^^"^^  and  will  hide  himself  forever  in  the  bowels 
of  the  earth. 

Daevas 

The  Demons.  The  daevas,  or  demons,  are  of  both  sexes, 
as  are  their  heavenly  counterparts.  Over  against  the  vispe 
Yazata,  or  '  all  angels,'  stand  in  sharp  contradistinction  the 
vispe  daeva,  '  all  demons.'  *^  The  greatest  of  all  the  demons 
is  Angra  Mainyu.*^  who  has  created  these  fiends  in  opposition 
to  the  Yazatas.  The  archangelic  host  of  the  Amesha  Spentas, 
and  some  of  the  angel  band  of  Yazatas  have  each  a  Daeva  as  a 

"  Yt.  17.  19,  20. 

"Ys.  19.  15. 

"  Yt.  13.  77. 

''-"  Yt.  19.  96. 

*»  Ys.  27.  I ;  57.  18;  Yt.  9-  4;  19-  81 ;  Vd.  10.  16. 

"  Vd.  19.  I,  43. 


i6o  EVIL 

special  adversary  engaged  in  thwarting  the  divine  will.  Plutarch 
states  that  when  Oromazdes  created  the  six  archangels,  Areimanios 
counter-created  an  equal  number  of  fiends.*^  The  arrangement, 
however,  is  perfunctory,  if  we  examine  the  Younger  Avestan 
texts.  The  personality  of  the  majority  of  these  demons  is  not 
sharply  defined,  and  the  account  of  their  activities,  as  found  in  the 
Later  Avestan  texts,  is  very  vague  and  meagre.  Some  are  men- 
tioned simply  by  name,  without  any  account  of  their  function 
being  added ;  it  is  only  through  the  help  of  the  Pahlavi  literature 
that  we  can  get  a  more  definite  idea  of  their  place  in  the  infernal 
group.  Not  only  are  the  wicked  spirits  spoken  of  as  the  Daevas, 
but  also  the  nomadic  hordes  of  Gilan  and  Mazanderan,  realms 
designated  as  Mazainya  in  the  Avesta ;  that  constantly  burst  with 
their  infidel  hordes  of  invaders  into  the  settlements  of  the  faith- 
ful, menacing  their  properties,  devastating  their  fields,  and  carry- 
ing away  their  flocks,  are  branded  as  Daevas.**,  The  wicked 
sodomite  is  equally  a  daeva,  and  a  worshipper  of  daevas,  as  well 
as  a  paramour  of  daevas,  he  is  a  daeva  during  life,  and  remains 
a  daeva  after  death.**  All  moral  wrongs  and  physical  obstacles 
are  personified  and  catalogued  in  this  scheme  of  demonology. 
To  every  disease  is  assigned  its  own  demon  as  having  been 
the  cause  of  the  malady.  The  germs  of  disease  and  death,  of 
plague  and  pestilence,  are  spoken  of  metaphorically  as  Daevas. 
The  Fire  of  Ahura  Mazda  serves  to  kill  such  Daevas  by  thousands 
wherever  the  scent  of  the  holy  flame  may  spread.*^  It  is  said 
that  if  the  sun  were  not  to  rise,  and  the  light  of  day  should  not 
curb  their  power  to  do  harm  under  the  cover  of  darkness,  the 
Daevas  would  kill  all  living  beings.*®  In  connection  with  such 
ideas  of  the  power  of  evil  it  may  be  understood  that  the  Avestan 
texts  teach  that  the  ground  wherein  are  interred  the  corpses  of 
the  dead  is  infested  with  myriads  of  the  demons,  who  feed  and 
revel  on  the  spot  as  a  consequence,  for  such  a  place  is  their 
favourite  haunt.*^  Even  the  dropping  of  nails  and  hair  on  the 
ground  is  an  act  of  uncleanness  that  is  equivalent  to  offering  a 

"  Is.  et  Os.  47. 

"Ys.  27.  i;  57.  17;  Yt.  5.  22;  9.  4;  lO.  97;  I3-  I37;  Vd.  10.  14,  16; 
17.  9,  10. 

"Vd.  8.  31,  22. 
"  Vd.  8.  80. 

Yt.  6.  3  ;  Ny.  i.  13. 

Vd.  7. 55-58. 


47 


EVIL  i6i 

sacrifice  to  the  demons,  as  spirits  of  pollution.  Such  a  careless 
act  of  uncleanness  results  in  the  production  of  demoniacal  foes 
to  health  and  purity  such  as  lice  and  moths,  which  are  equally 
called  the  daevas.^**    The  northern  regions  are  peopled  with  the 

demons. ^^ 

The  number  of  the  demons  is  said  to  be  legion,  even  though 
the  Avestan  texts  mention  only  about  forty-five  more  explicitly  by 
name.^°  As  in  other  cases  of  the  fiendish  crew  of  hell,  many  of 
these  evil  powers  have  no  story  in  particular  to  tell,  but  we  shall 
deal  with  the  more  important  ones  in  the  sections  that  immediately 
follow. 

The  w^ork  of  the  demons.  The  demons  have  all  been  allotted 
their  special  provinces  of  work  in  both  the  worlds.  Active  work 
and  strenuous  exertion  on  the  part  of  man  deal  them  blows ;  for 
example,  when  the  farmer  tills  his  fields  and  sows  his  corn,  the 
demons  are  dismayed.  When  the  corn  grows  the  demons  start 
in  dismay  and  faint,  they  grumble  and  rush  to  their  hovels.^'- 
Jhey  spread  uncleanness  on  the  earth,^^  that  the  creatures  may 
thereby  sufifer,  and  attack  and  overpower  him  who  moves  about 
without  the  sacred  girdle.^*  They  sought  for  the  death  of  Zara- 
thushtra.^*  They  prevented  the  stars,  the  moon,  and  the  sun 
from  moving,  until  the  Fravashis  showed  them  their  path.^^ 

Means  to  confound  them.  The  faithful  recite  the  holy  spells 
to  dispel  the  demons.  Zarathushtra  himself,  at  the  outset,  baffled 
them  by  uttering  the  holy  word.^^  As  stated  elsewhere,  these 
evil  spirits  are  put  to  flight  at  the  recital  of  the  Ahuna  Vairya, 
Gathic  stanzas,  and  the  other  spells,"  and  the  drinking  of  the 
consecrated  Haoma,  moreover,  brings  destruction  to  them.^^ 

Those  who  strike  terror  into  the  hearts  of  the  demons. 
Ahura  Mazda  is  invoked  to  smite  the  demons,"**  and  Haurvatat, 
Ardvi  Sura,  Drvaspa,  and  the  Fravashis  are  invoked  by  the  kings 

"  Vd.  17.  2,  3. 

"  Vd.  7-  2;  19.  I. 

'"  See  Jackson,  Iranische  Religion,  in  GIrPh.  2.  056-602. 

"  Vd.  3.  32. 

"  Yt.  ID.  50. 

"  Vd.  18.  54,  55- 

"  Vd.  19.  3- 

"  Yt.  13.  57. 

"  Yt.  13.  90. 

°'Yt.  3.  7;  II.  6;  Vd.  10.  13-16. 

"  Ys.  10.  6. 

"  Ys.  27.  I. 


i62  EVIL 

and  heroes  to  the  same  end.^"  Asha  Vahishta  smites  the  worst 
of  the  demons  by  thousands,"'  while  they  tremble  before  Sraosha, 
who  wields  a  club  in  his  hands  to  strike  upon  their  skulls.®^ 
Three  times  each  day  and  each  night  Sraosha  comes  down  upon 
this  earth  with  his  terrible  mace  to  fight  against  the  demons."' 
Mithra  likewise  levels  his  club  at  their  skulls  and  smites  them 
down."*  The  kings  Haoshyangha,  Takhma  Urupi,  and  Vishtaspa 
triumphed  and  ruled  over  the  demons."^  Of  course  the  demons 
are  terrified  at  the  birth  of  Zarathushtra,""  who  routed  them  at 
the  outset."'^  Not  one  of  them,  nor  all  together,  could  compass  the 
hallowed  sage's  death ; "«  they  vanished  overcome  at  his  sight."^ 
In  fact  all  those  demons  that  roamed  about  on  the  earth  in 
human  form  sank  beneath  the  earth  at  the  appearance  of  the 
prophet. ^°  For  all  these  reasons  it  may  be  understood  that  in 
the  realm  of  the  hereafter  the  demons  quail  at  the  sight  of  a 
righteous  soul  advancing  towards  heaven,  in  the  same  manner  as 
a  sheep  trembles  in  the  presence  of  a  wolf  .'^^ 

The  Daeva-w^orshippers.  In  opposition  to  the  faithful  who 
are  called  Mazdayasnians,  or  the  worshippers  of  Mazda,  all  un- 
believers and  wicked  persons  are  styled  the  Daevayasnians,  that 
is,  as  being  worshippers  of  the  demons.  The  two  worlds  of  the 
righteous  and  the  wicked  are  rent  asunder.  The  barrier  between 
them  cannot  be  broken.  Mazda  extends  his  helping  hand  to  the 
righteous,  but  leaves  the  wicked  to  themselves.  Nay,  he  hates 
them. 

As  the  dregvant,  or  the  wicked  one,  stands  in  antithesis  to 
the  ashavan,  the  righteous  one,  in  the  sphere  of  morals,  so  the 
Daevayasnian,  or  worshipper  of  demons,  stands  in  contradis- 
tinction to  the  faithful  Mazdayasnian  in  the  matter  of  belief. 
Both  words,  dregvant  and  daevayasna,  are  Zoroastrian  syn- 
onyms also  of  heretic.  The  life  of  a  Daevayasnian  is  not  of  equal 
value  with  that  of  a  Mazdayasnian ;  this  is  shown  in  the  Avesta 
by  the  fact  that  the  new  surgeon  who  intends  practising  among 
the  Mazda-worshippers  must  first  prove  his  skill  on  three  of  the 
Daeva-worshippers ;  and  if  his  operations  are  successful  he  may 

•"Yt.  4.  2;  5-  22,  26,  68,  77;  9-  4;  13-  45.  I37-     "  Vd.  19.  46. 

"Yt.  2.  II,  12;  3.  10,  14.  IIZ^-'J-^^- 

«=  Vd.  19.  15.  Yt.  8.  44. 

«'  Ys.  57-  31.  '"  Yt.  19.  80. 

"  Yt.  6.  5;  10.  26,  97,  128-133-  '"  Ys.  9.  15. 

"Yt.  19.  26,  28,  29,  84.  "  Vd.  19.  33;  Aog.  19. 


EVIL  163 

then  be  given  permission  to  practise  among  the  faithful,  but  if  his 
tests  prove  fatal  he  is  to  be  disqualified  forever."  In  regard 
to  acts  of  worship,  moreover,  those  misguided  sacrificers  who 
bring  libations  unto  Ardvi  Sura  after  sunset  are  classed  among 
the  worshippers  of  the  Daevas,  for  the  libations  brought  after  the 
sun  has  set  reach  the  demons.'^' 

Zorcastrianism  is  anti-daeva,  or  against  the  demons.  In 
the  hymn  of  the  Confession  of  Faith  that  the  faithful  recites  from 
the  time  when  he  as  a  child  is  invested  with  the  sacred  cord, 
and  which  he  thereafter  repeats  throughout  his  life  at  the  open- 
ing of  each  daily  prayer,  he  proclaims  himself  a  worshipper  of 
Mazda  and  a  foe  to  the  demons.'^*  In  this  antagonistic  attitude 
to  all  that  is  evil,  he  abjures  everything  relating  to  the  demons 
and  all  that  may  accrue  from  them,  exactly  as  the  prophet  Zara- 
thushtra  did."  One  of  the  Nasks,  or  books  of  the  Avesta,  more- 
over, derives  its  name  from  this  very  expression  and  is  called, 
accordingly,  the  Vendidad,  more  correctly  '  Vidaeva-data,'  or  '  law 
against  the  demons.' 

Aka  Manah 

The  demon  of  Evil  Mind.  Angra  Mainyu  has  created 
Aka  Manah,  or  Evil  Mind,  as  a  counterpoise  to  the  Good  Mind 
of  Vohu  Manah.  The  fiend  occupies,  after  his  father,  Angra 
Mainyu,  the  second  place  among  the  whole  host  of  demons.  In 
spite  of  this,  he  figures  very  rarely  in  the  Younger  Avesta  and  we 
do  not  hear  so  much  of  his  activity  as  in  the  Pahlavi  works.  Aka 
Manah,  in  the  scene  of  the  temptation  of  the  prophet,  joins  in  the 
stratagem  of  the  demon  Buiti  to  assail  Zarathushtra,  and  as  an 
impersonation  of  the  baser  side  of  the  human  mind  he  practises 
his  wiles  by  guileful  words  of  seduction  for  the  sainted  leader 
to  abandon  the  course  of  righteousness,  but  the  holy  prophet 
baffles  the  fiend  in  his  attempt.^**  This  evil  being,  moreover,  takes 
part  unsuccessfully  in  the  contest  between  the  powers  of  the 
Good  Spirit  and  the  Evil  Spirit  to  seize  the  Divine  Glory."  The 
ethics  of  Zoroastrianism  naturally  demands  that  Aka  Manah's 
power  shall  be  ultimately  destroyed,  and  accordingly  he  will  be 
vanquished  by  Vohu  Manah  at  the  end  of  the  present  cycle. 

"  Vd.  7.  36-40.  "  Ys.  12.  4-6.  "  Yt.  19.  46. 

"  Yt.  5-  94.  95 ;  Nr.  68.    "  Vd.  19.  4-  "  Yt.  19.  96. 

'*  Ys.  12.  I. 


78 


i64  ,  EVIL 

.  Druj 

The  embodiment  of  wickedness.  Druj  is  feminine  in  gender 
and,  like  other  demons,  is  a  spirit.'^^  This  evil  genius  of  Wicked- 
ness of  the  Gathic  period  preserves  her  original  traits  in  the 
Yasna  and  Yasht  literature,  but  it  seems,  if  we  judge  rightly,  that 
she  gradually  undergoes  a  transformation  in  the  Vendidad.  The 
Gathic  prayer  of  the  faithful  to  enable  the  true  believer  to  smite 
Druj,  and  thereby  to  weaken  the  Kingdom  of  Wickedness,  is 
still  echoed  in  the  first  part  of  the  Avestan  period,^°  The  house- 
lord,  for  example,  invokes  Asha  to  drive  away  Druj  from  his 
house,  and  the  faithful  asks  for  strength  to  enable  him  to  smite 
Druj,  while  he  likewise  implores  the  good  Vayu  to  remove  the 
fiendish  Druj.^^  King  Vishtaspa,  as  a  champion  warring  against 
all  that  is  evil,  drove  away  Druj  from  the  world  of  Righteous- 
ness ;  ^^  and  even  Ahura  Mazda  himself  acknowledges  that  had 
not  the  Fravashis  helped  him,  Druj  would  have  overpowered  the 
entire  world.^^  In  the  same  manner  we  can  conceive  why  Mithra 
should  be  invoked  by  cattle  that  have  been  led  astray  to  the  den 
of  Druj  by  the  wicked.®*  Druj  is  designated  as  of  evil  descent 
and  darkness,®^  and  devilish  by  nature.®"  It  is  through  the  help 
of  the  religion  of  Mazda  that  the  Druj  can  be  driven  away  from 
the  world;  this  is  expressly  the  saying  of  Ahura  Mazda  to  his 
prophet.®^  At  the  final  renovation  Saoshyant,  the  saviour,  will 
overcome  the  Druj  among  mankind ;  ®®  she  will  then  perish  utterly 
and  forever  with  her  hundredfold  brood.®^ 

Other  Drujes.  The  Gathas  knew  but  one  Druj,  the  one  that 
works  in  opposition  to  Asha.  In  the  later  Avestan  texts  Druj 
becomes  a  class  designation  of  minor  female  demons.  These 
fiends  are  styled  the  Drujes,  and  Yt.  2.  ii  speaks  of  vispe  druj, 
'  all  drujes,'  in  the  same  strain  as  vispe  Yasata,  '  all  Yazatas,'  and 
vispe  daeva,  '  all  demons.'  From  the  sacred  texts  we  learn  that 
there  are  drujes  who  come  openly,  and  there  are  those  that  come 
in  secret,  and  again  there  are  those  that  defile  by  mere  contact.®" 
The  term  druj  itself  is  loosely  applied  likewise  to  other  demons 

"Yt.  I.  19;  II.  3;  13-  71-  '°Ys.  9-  8;  57-  i5;  Yt.  5- 34; 

»"  Ys.  61.  s;  Yt.  I.  28.  Vd.  8.  21 ;  18.  31  f- 

"Ys.  60.  5;  Yt.  24.  25;  Vd.  20.  8.   "Vd.  19.  12,  13. 

^'  Yt.  19.  93.  °'  Yt.  13.  129. 

"  Yt.  13.  12,  13.  ''  Yt.  19.  12. 

""  Yt.  10.  86.  ""  Yt.  4-  6. 

'» Yt.  19.  95- 


EVIL  165 

and  wicked  persons.  The  demon  Biiiti,  for  instance,  is  desig- 
nated as  a  druj,**^  and  the  demoniacal  Azhi  Dahaka,  who  was 
sent  to  this  world  by  the  arch-fiend  as  a  scourge  to  the  world  of 
Righteousness,  is  called  a  druj.  The  daevas,  moreover,  when 
baffled  in  their  foul  attempt  to  kill  Zarathushtra,  howl  out  that  he 
is  a  veritable  druj  to  every  druj.^-  The  conviction  of  the  pious 
that  Druj  will  perish  at  the  hands  of  Asha  Vahishta  is  for  all 
time  firm,  because  Sraosha  appears  on  the  field  as  the  best  smiter 
of  Druj.*'^^  In  a  lengthy  disputation,  moreover,  Sraosha  extorts 
from  the  fiendish  impersonation,  Druj,  the  secret  of  how  man- 
kind by  their  various  misdeeds  impregnate  her  and  her  brood 
of  fiends ;  that  is,  in  simpler  language,  he  learns  from  her  by  what 
particular  works  man  increases  the  Druj's  domain  of  wickedness.^* 
Druj  as  the  personification  of  bodily  impurity  under  the 
name  Nasu.  Purity  of  body,  mind,  and  spirit  go  together  to 
constitute  a  righteous  man.  The  Gathas  pre-eminently  speak  of 
the  ethical  virtues  and  purity  of  soul.  Asha  presides  over 
Righteousness,  and  Druj  acts  as  the  evil  genius  of  Wickedness. 
The  greater  portion  of  the  Vendidad,  however,  contains  priestly 
legislation  for  purity  of  body,  as  well  as  of  the  soul,  and  gives 
elaborate  rules  for  the  cleansing  of  those  defiled  by  dead  mat- 
ter. The  uncleanness  embodied  in  the  very  term  druj  is  now 
personified  as  Druj  Nasu ;  her  abode  is  in  the  burrow  at  the  neck 
of  the  mountain  Arezura  in  the  northern  region,  but  at  the  same 
time  her  presence  is  everywhere  manifest  on  this  earth.^^  Her 
chief  function  is  to  spread  defilement  and  decay  in  the  world. 
Immediately  after  the  death  of  an  individual,  when  the  soul 
leaves  the  body  and  decomposition  sets  in,  the  Druj  Nasu  comes 
flying  from  the  north  in  the  shape  of  a  despicable  fly,  and  takes 
possession  of  the  corpse.^^  She  is  expelled,  however,  when  a 
dog  or  the  corpse-eating  birds  have  gazed  at  the  dead  body,^^ 
and  when  certain  pious  formulas  have  been  recited.  In  reply 
to  the  inquiry  how  one  may  best  drive  away  the  Druj  Nasu 
that  rushes  from  the  dead  and  defiles  the  living,  Ahura  Mazda 
bids  the  faithful  to  recite  the  holy  spells.**^  When  the  purificatory 
rites  have  been  performed  and  the  sacred  formulas  uttered  upon 
the  one  defiled  by  the  dead,  the  Druj  Nasu  becomes  weaker  and 

•^  Vd.  19.  1-3.  '*  Vd.  18.  30-59-  •'  Vd.  7-  3. 

"  Vd.  19.  46.  "  Vd.  3.  7.  •'  Yt.  4-  5;  Vd.  10.  I. 

"Yt.  3-  17;  II.  3-  "Vd.  7.  I,  2. 


i66  EVIL 

weaker  and  flees  from  one  part  of  the  body  to  the  other,  until 
finally  she  vanishes  towards  the  northern  regions.''^  Whoso  offers 
for  consecration  water  that  has  in  any  way  been  defiled  by  the 
dead,  or  proffers  libations  after  the  sun  has  set,  even  though 
with  good  intent,  feeds  the  Druj  and  thereby  hinders  the  work 
of  righteousness.^""  The  religion  of  Mazda,  as  a  faith  para- 
mount, dispels  best  this  Druj  of  defilement."^ 

The  barrier  between  the  ashavans  and  dregvants  is  still 
impassable.  Though  the  concept  Druj  as  the  genius  of  wicked- 
ness has  undergone  a  change  in  the  Later  Avesta,  the  adjectival 
form,  dregvant,  meaning  wicked,  as  opposed  to  ashavan,  right- 
eous, remains  unaltered.  This  designation  is  applied  equally  to 
bad  men  and  to  demons,  in  the  same  manner  as  it  used  to  be  in 
the  Gathas.  Along  with  the  employment  of  this  term,  the  appli- 
cation of  the  derogatory  title  ashemaogha,  literally  meaning  '  one 
who  destroys  Asha,  Righteousness,'  has  come  into  vogue  and  is 
equally  applied  to  the  wicked.  Perhaps  there  is  this  difference 
in  usage :  that  dregvant  is  an  ethical  appellation  of  unrighteous 
men,  whereas  ashemaogha  seems  to  be  a  theological  and  ritual 
designation  of  one  who  deviates  from  the  prescribed  teachings 
of  the  established  church  and  who  preaches  heresy  both  as  regards 
the  doctrines  of  the  faith  and  the  rules  of  ceremonial.  The 
ashemaogha  is  generally  to  be  understood  as  equivalent  to  the 
unrighteous.  Any  one  who  undertakes  to  cleanse  a  person  defiled 
by  the  dead,  without  being  well-versed  in  the  Zoroastrian  rules 
of  cleanness,  is  also  an  ashemaogha.  Such  a  man  retards  the 
progress  of  the  world  by  his  false  deed."^  If  a  priest  of  this 
character  were  to  give  a  benediction,  his  words  of  blessing  would 
go  no  further  than  his  lips.^°^  Whoso  gives  the  consecrated  food 
to  a  sinner  of  that  type  brings  calamity  to  his  own  country.^"* 
He  himself  is  a  heretic,  for  he  does  not  acknowledge  any  tem- 
poral or  spiritual  master.^"^  Ahura  Mazda  accordingly  advises 
Zarathushtra  to  recite  the  divine  names  when  he  wishes  to  rout 
the  malice  of  any  such  apostate ;  ^°®  Vayu  likewise  enjoins  upon 
him  to  utter  his  sacred  names  when  in  danger  of  being  so 
harassed.^°^ 

""Vd.  9.  12-26.  '"Vd.  9-  51,  52.  "'Yt.  13.  105. 

""  Vd.  7.  78,  79.  '"'  Vd.  18.  II.  '°'  Yt.  I.  10,  II. 

'°^Vd.  19.  12,  13.  ^»*Vd.  18.  12.  '"Yt.  15.  51. 


EVIL  167 


Indar 


A  god  in  the  Vedas,  a  demon  in  the  Avesta.  This  demon 
furnishes  us  with  an  instance  of  degrading  one  of  the  great 
Indian  divinities  to  the  rank  of  a  demon  in  the  Iranian  theology. 
He  is  mentioned  in  the  Boghaz-keui  tablets,  recently  discovered 
in  Asia  Minor,  that  are  supposed  to  date  from  about  1400  b.c. 
His  name  occurs  but  twice  in  the  extant  Avestan  texts;  he  is 
mentioned  as  one  of  the  ribald  crew  routed  by  Zarathushtra ;  ^°^ 
and  in  another  passage  a  spell  mentioning  him  by  name  is  recited 
to  drive  away  the  demons.^°^  These  two  Avestan  passages, 
however,  do  not  give  us  an  inkling  of  the  function  of  this  fiend. 
In  the  Pahlavi  period  he  assumes  the  part  of  Asha  Vahishta's 
adversary. 

Saurva 

Foe  to  the  archangel  Khshathra  Vairya.  The  Indian  coun- 
terpart of  the  demon  Saurva  is  Sharva.  The  Avestan  texts,  which 
make  two  mentions  of  the  name  of  this  demon,  do  not  give  us 
his  life-story ."°  In  the  diabolical  host  he  is  the  adversary  of  the 
archangel  Khshathra  Vairya,  through  whom  shall  be  established 
the  Kingdom  of  Ahura  Mazda. 

Taromaiti 

She  thwarts  devotion.  This  feminine  demoniacal  impersona- 
tion of  heresy  and  counterpart  of  Spenta  Armaiti  is  to  be  smitten 
by  the  recital  of  the  sacred  formulas ;  she  will  flee  away  as  soon  as 
the  Airyaman  Ishya  prayer  is  uttered.^"  The  faithful,  in  conse- 
quence, pray  that  the  genius  of  devotion  may  dispel  this  demoness 
from  their  houses. ^^^ 

Naonghaithya 

A  demon  of  incipient  personality.  Naonghaithya  corre- 
sponds to  the  Vedic  Nasatya,  the  epithet  of  the  heavenly  Ashvins, 
and  is  likewise  mentioned  in  the  Boghaz-keui  tablets,  but  is  classed 
in  the  Zoroastrian  works  among  the  evil  powers.  The  demon  is 
twice  mentioned  in  the  Avestan  texts,"^  but  the  passages  in  ques- 

^°'Vd.  19.  43-  ""Vd.  10.  9;  19.  43.         "'Ys.  60.  5. 

'°'' Vd.  10.  9.  "^Yt.  3-  8,  II,  15.  "' Vd.  10.  9;  19.  43. 


i68  EVIL 

tion  shed  no  real  light  on  the  sphere  of  his  activity.  During  the 
Pahlavi  period,  however  (and  the  same  may  reasonably  be  pre- 
sumed for  the  Avesta),  Naonghaithya,  or  Naunghas,  as  he  is  then 
called,  is  seen  vv^orking  in  antagonism  to  Spenta  Armaiti. 

Taurvi  and  Zairicha 

Taurvi  and  Zairicha  as  adversaries  of  Haurvatat  and 
Ameretat.  The  names  of  the  dual  demons  Taurvi  and  Zairicha 
personify,  in  later  texts  at  least,  fever  and  thirst.  They  occur 
together  and  are  mentioned  in  two  places  in  the  Younger 
Avesta,^^*  yet  without  any  special  description  of  their  work. 
They  are  in  the  Pahlavi  texts  depicted  as  the  adversaries  of  the 
dual  divinities  Haurvatat  and  Ameretat,  whose  active  mission  in 
the  world  has  been  described  above. 

ASTOVIDHOTU 

The  fiend  of  death.  As  indicated  etymologically  by  the  root 
of  the  Avestan  words  maretan  and  mashya,  man  is  mortal.  This 
mortality  applies  to  his  material  frame  only.  At  death  he  dies  in 
the  flesh,  but  he  lives  forever  in  the  spirit.  Astovidhotu,  literally 
'  the  bone-divider,'  who  impersonates  death,  awaits  all.  When  a 
man  is  burnt  by  fire  or  drowned  in  water,  it  is  Astovidhotu  who 
binds  his  breath  and  hastens  him  to  an  unnatural  death. ^^^  Man 
trembles  at  Astovidhotu's  sight.^^^  The  demon  silently  creeps  to 
capture  his  victim,  pouncing  upon  him  so  suddenly  that  the  un- 
fortunate one  remains  unaware  of  his  doom.  He  cannot  be  won 
over  by  favor  or  by  bribe.  He  respects  not  rank  or  position,  but 
he  mercilessly  captures  all.^^'^  Every  one  eagerly  wishes  to  put 
ofif  the  moment  of  this  catastrophe,  for  none  likes  to  hasten  to 
the  jaws  of  this  all-devouring  demon.  The  philosopher  may 
speak  of  death  with  sublime  resignation,  the  theologian  may  con- 
sole himself  by  depicting  death  as  the  birth  into  a  higher  life, 
the  mystic  may  long  for  the  dissolution  of  the  body  as  a  heaven- 
sent liberation  of  the  spirit,  but  the  majority  of  humanity 
thirst  for  life  and  thirst  for  a  long  life.  The  death-toll  which 
Astovidhotu  exacts  from  the  world  is  appalling.    On  that  account 

"*  Vd.  10.  9;  19.  43.  '"  Aog.  57- 

''•  Vd.  5.  8,  9-  "'  Aog.  70-73. 


EVIL  169 

Mithra  and  Sraosha  are  invoked  by  the  faithful  to  protect  them 
from  the  assaults  of  Astovidhotu,"^  and  Ahura  Mazda's  divine 
aid  protects  the  child  in  its  mother's  womb  from  the  onslaughts 
of  this  demon."*^  The  man  who  marries  and  rears  a  family  is 
hard-working,  and  nourishes  his  body  with  meat,  is  able  the 
better  to  withstand  Astovidhotu  than  a  celibate. ^^° 

ViZARESHA 

This  demon's  v^^ork.  The  demon  Vizaresha,  '  the  dragger 
away,"  lies  in  wait  for  the  wicked  souls  at  the  gate  of  hell,  when 
justice  is  administered  to  the  souls  on  the  third  night  after 
the  bodily  deaths  of  men.  No  sooner  do  the  heavenly  judges 
pass  their  verdict  of  being  guilty  on  a  soul  than  Vizaresha 
pounces  upon  his  victim  and  mercilessly  drags  the  wretched  soul 
into  the  bottomless  hell.^^^ 

KUNDA 

A  demon  at  the  gate  of  hell.  Sraosha  is  invoked  to  smite 
this  demon.  He  is  drunken  without  drinking,  and  hurls  the  souls 
of  the  wicked  into  hell.^^^  There  are  spells  to  rout  the  fiend  and 
his  evil  progeny. ^^^ 

BUSHYANSTA 

Sloth  personified.  Idleness  and  inactivity  tend  to  strengthen 
the  Kingdom  of  Evil.  The  demoness  Bushyansta,  or  sloth  per- 
sonified, literally  '  procrastination,'  is  commissioned  by  Angra 
Mainyu  to  inculcate  the  habit  of  sleep  and  procrastination  among 
mankind.  She,  the  long-handed,  as  she  is  called,^^*  lulls  the  whole 
living  world  to  inordinate  slumber.  Timely  sleep  as  such  is  of 
Ahura  Mazda's  making  and  it  receives  even  adoration ;  ^^^  but 
Bushyansta,  the  inordinate,  tempts  the  idle  to  be  unduly  long  in 
bed,^-"  and  thus  prevents  the  practice  of  good  thoughts,  good 
words,  and  good  deeds.^"  At  dawn  the  cock  Parodarsh,  whose 
name  literally  means  '  one  who  sees  ahead,'  flapping  his  wings  and 
crowing  aloud,  warns  slumbering  humanity  of  the  stratagem  of 

'"  Ys.  57.  25 ;  Yt.  10.  93-  '"  Vd.  19.  41.  '"  Vsp.  7.  3- 

*•'  Yt.  13.  II,  28.  '"  Vd.  II.  9,  12.  '"  Yt.  22.  42. 

'"  Vd.  4.  47-49.  '"  Vd.  II.  9;  18.  16,  24.  '"  Vd.  18.  17,  25. 

»"  Vd.  19.  29. 


170  EVIL 

Bushyansta,  and  informs  the  faithful  that  it  is  time  to  wake  up 
and  proceed  to  work.^^^  When  Mithra  comes  in  his  chariot,  he 
puts  the  fiend  to  flight ;  ^^9  the  Aryan  Glory  and  the  holy  spells 
join  hands  as  well  to  render  powerless  this  demoness  of  lazi- 


ness."" 


Aeshma 

The  demon  of  wrath.  This  evil  genius  of  wrath  and  fury, 
who  comes  down  from  the  Gathic  period,  works  in  opposition 
to  Sraosha.  He  is  full  of  sin,"^  and  is  the  wielder  of  a  bloody 
mace."-  Ahura  Mazda  created  Sraosha  to  counteract  his  fiendish 
mischief."^  The  faithful  invoke  Sraosha  to  protect  them  from 
his  assaults."*  Sraosha  hurls  his  mace  at  this  demon's  skull,  and 
the  fiend  takes  to  flight  before  Mithra."^  Intoxicating  drinks 
incite  men  to  embrace  Aeshma,  but  the  recital  of  the  holy  spells 
helps  to  dispel  him."® 

BUITI 

The  tempter  of  Zarathushtra.  The  eighteenth  chapter  of  the 
Vendidad  contains  an  account  of  the  temptation  of  Zarathushtra 
by  the  Evil  Spirit.  Angra  Mainyu  decreed  in  his  infernal  coun- 
cil amid  the  bickerings  of  the  demons  with  one  another  that 
Buiti,  who  is  death  unseen,  should  go  to  the  world  and  lure  Zara- 
thushtra from  his  constancy.  The  righteous  one  chants  the  sacred 
Ahuna  Vairya  formula  and  dispels  the  demon,  who  rushes 
away  to  report  his  inability  to  overpower  the  holy  prophet."^ 
Buidhi  is  the  name  of  a  demon  found  in  Vd.  ii.  9,  12,  which  may 
be  a  variant  reading  of  Buiti. 

Apaosha 

The  demon  of  drought.  The  Yasht  dedicated  to  Tishtrya 
gives  a  picturesque  accoimt  of  the  battle  waged  between  the 

""  Vd.  18.  16,  24.  For  general  information  about  the  cock  among  the 
ancient  Iranians,  see  Jackson,  Proceedings,  AOS.  13.  Hx-lxi;  cf.  also 
Peters,  The  Cock,  in  JAOS.  zz-  377-38o. 

"»  Yt.  10.  97,  134- 

^»»  Yt.  18.  2 ;  Vd.  II.  9,  12.  '"  Ys.  57-  25. 

•"Yt.  ID.  97.  '"Ys.  57-  10;  Yt.  10.  97- 

"*Ys.  10.  8;  Yt.  II.  15.  ""Ys.  10.  8;  Yt.  17.  5:  Vd.  11.  9. 

'"Yt.  II.  15.  '"Vd.  19.  1-3- 


EVIL  171 

angel  of  rain  and  the  demon  of  drought.  Tishtrya  assumes  three 
different  forms  for  ten  nights  each.  For  the  first  ten  nights 
he  takes  the  form  of  a  youth  of  fifteen  years  of  age,  for  the 
second  ten  nights  he  moves  along  in  the  shape  of  a  golden-horned 
bull,  and  the  last  ten  nights  in  the  shape  of  a  beautiful  white 
horse,  with  golden  ears  and  a  golden  caparison,  seeking  libations 
and  offerings,  so  that  he  may  bestow  upon  his  supplicants  oxen, 
children,  and  horses."^  When  he  proceeds  to  his  work  of  pouring 
down  water  on  the  earth,  he  is  confronted  by  the  demon  Apaosha, 
who  has  assumed  the  form  of  a  dark  horse. ^^^  A  severe  struggle 
ensues,  lasting  for  three  days  and  three  nights.  Apaosha  comes 
off  first  as  the  victor  in  the  combat  and  puts  the  genius  of  rain 
to  flight.^^°  Tishtrya  bemoans  his  lot  and  complains  before 
Ahura  Mazda  that  mankind  had  neglected  to  sacrifice  unto  him. 
If  only  he  were  strengthened  by  their  offerings,  he  would  carry 
with  himself  on  the  battlefield  the  vigour  of  ten  horses,  ten  camels, 
ten  bulls,  ten  mountains,  and  ten  rivers."^  Ahura  Mazda,  there- 
upon, offers  a  sacrifice  to  the  unfortunate  angel  and  gives  him 
the  desired  strength."-  Girt  with  this  added  power,  Tishtrya  now 
boldly  marches  against  his  rival,  and  engages  in  combat  with 
him,  until,  to  the  joy  of  the  waters,  and  plants,  and  lands,  and 
fields,  Tishtrya  comes  out  triumphant  and  Apaosha  is  defeated."^ 
The  Aryan  Glory  also  overpowers  him. 


144 


Spenjhaghri 

Apaosha's  associate.  The  name  of  this  demon  occurs  but 
once  in  the  Avesta,  in  Vd.  19.  40,  where  Vazishta,  the  fire  of 
lightning,  is  spoken  of  as  smiting  Spenjhaghri.  We  learn  from 
the  Pahlavi  works  that  this  fiend  works  in  concert  with  Apaosha 
to  hinder  Tishtrya  from  pouring  the  rain  upon  the  earth. 

Azi 

Demon  of  avarice.  On  the  physical  side  this  demon  strives 
to  extinguish  the  household  fire,  but  he  is  repelled  by  Sraosha 
three  times  during  the  night."^    On  the  moral  side  he  is  the  evil 


138 


Yt.  8.  13-19.  '"  Yt.  8.  23,  24.  "*  Yt.  18.  2.  6. 

"•  Yt.  8.  21.  '"  Yt.  8.  25.  '"  Vd.  18.  19,  21,  22. 

'*"  Yt.  8.  22.  *"Yt.  8.  26-29. 


172  EVIL 

genius  of  avarice."^     Sacrifices  are  offered  to  the  waters  and 
trees  to  enable  the  faithful  to  withstand  him."^ 

Vayu 

A  collaborator  of  Astovidhotu.  We  have  already  seen  the 
good  part  of  Vayu  personified  as  a  Yazata.  The  other  part 
belongs  to  the  realm  of  wickedness  and  is  impersonated  by  a 
demon  of  the  same  name.  He  accompanies  the  demon  Astovi- 
dhotu in  his  work  of  bringing  death  unto  creation.  He  is 
most  pitiless  and  his  path  is  most  dreadful.  A  man  may  be  able 
to  traverse  a  path  that  is  barred  by  a  flowing  river,  or  a  huge 
serpent,  or  by  a  terrible  bear,  or  by  an  army,  but  no  man  can 
ever  cross  the  path  of  Vayu  and  come  out  safe."^  It  is  Vayu 
who  hastens  his  victim  to  speedy  death  by  smothering  him  when 
he  is  drowned  or  thrown  in  a  burning  fire."^  As  the  good  Vayu 
and  the  good  wind,  Vata,  are  identical,  so  are  also  the  evil  Vayu 
and  the  devil  Vata  personifying  the  storm-wind.^^ 


150 


Minor  Demons 

Some  of  the  other  demons  who  are  merely  mentioned  by  name, 
and  about  whose  characteristics  we  do  not  know  anything,  are 
Vyambura,  Hashi,  Ghashi,  Saeni,  Buji,  Driwi,  Daiwi,  Kaswi, 
Akatasha,  Aghashi,  Paitisha,  Zaurva,  Ithyejah,  and  Spazga. 

Pairika 

The  fairies.  A  class  of  bewitching  fairies  has  been  created 
by  Angra  Mainyu  to  seduce  men  from  the  right  path  and  in- 
jure the  living  world.  Nimble  as  birds  they  go  along  flying  in 
the  shape  of  shooting  stars  between  the  earth  and  the  heavens.^^^ 
They  come  upon  fire,  water,  trees,  and  other  creations  from  which 
they  are  to  be  driven  away  by  the  recital  of  spells.^^^  They 
try  to  kill  Zarathushtra,  but  in  vain.^^^ 

Three  of  the  more  prominent  fairies  are  mentioned  by  name. 
They  are  Khnanthaiti  that  clave  unto  King  Keresaspa,  who  was 
bewitched    by    her    looks  ;^^*    Duzhyairya,^^^    corresponding    to 

"•  Yt.  i8.  I.  ""Yd.  10.  14.  ^"  Yt.  8.  44- 

>«^  Ys.  16.  8.  '"  Yt.  8.  8.  ^°*  Vd.  i.  10. 

>*'  Aog.  77-81.  '"  Vd.  II.  9,  12.  '"  Yt.  8.  51,  53.  54- 
"•  Vd.  5.  8,  9. 


EVIL  173 

Dushiyar,  or  the  fairy  of  drought  according  to  the  Old  Persian 
Inscriptions/^*'  and  to  Dushyari  of  the  Turfan  manuscript  of 
Mani;^"  and  Mush.^^*  Zarathushtra  tells  Angra  Mainyu  he 
will  smite  Khnanthaiti."^  Ahura  created  Tishtrya  to  rout  Duzh- 
yairya.^*"^  He  keeps  her  in  bonds  as  a  thousand  men  would 
keep  one  man,  and  if  Tishtrya  were  not  to  keep  her  in  check  she 
would  extinguish  the  life  of  the  entire  material  world.^" 

The  recital  of  the  Ahuna  Vairya  and  Airyaman  Ishya  prayers 
rout  the  fairies.^*'-  Zarathushtra  asks  Ahura  Mazda  to  declare 
that  divine  name  of  his  by  the  utterance  of  which  he  may  smite 
the  demons  and  fairies.^*'^  Ahura  Mazda,  thereupon,  declares  that 
the  recital  of  his  holy  names  is  most  efficacious  for  routing  the 
evil  ones."*  Haurvatat,  Haoma,  Ardvi  Sura,  Tishtrya,  Mithra, 
Vayu,  the  Fravashis,  sun,  waters,  and  trees  are  invoked  to  give 
power  to  withstand  the  seductive  attacks  of  the  Pairikas/^^ 
Haoshyangha  and  Takhma  Urupi  overpowered  and  ruled  over 
them."** 

The  Yatus,  or  sorcerers,  usually  associate  with  this  class  of 
evil  beings.  The  West  has  derived  the  term  magic  from  Magi, 
the  priestly  class  of  the  ancient  Persians.  The  Zoroastrian  works 
of  all  periods,  however,  detest  sorcery  as  an  evil  creation  of 
Angra  Mainyu."''  The  verdict  of  the  Greek  writers  regarding 
this  is  unanimous.  Dino  states  in  his  Persica  that  the  Magi 
abhorred  divination  by  magic,  and  Sotion  on  the  authority  of 
Aristotle  and  Dino  says  that  sorcery  was  unknown  among  the 
Magi."« 

'°°  Darius,  Pers.  d.  3. 

"'  Miiller,  Handschriften-Reste,  2,  p.  15,  in  Abh.  d.  kgl.  Preuss.  Akad. 
d.  Wiss.,  Anhang,  Berlin,  1904. 
'''  Ys.  16.  8. 
^"  Vd.  19.  5. 

""YlS.  36,  51,  53-55. 

^'^Yt.  8.  54,  55. 

'"^Yt.  3.  5;  II.  6;  Vd.  20.  12. 

'"  Yt.  I.  6. 

^"Yt.  I.  10,  II. 

"' Ys.  9.  18;  16.  8;  68.  8;  Yt.  4.  4;  5-  26;  6.  4;  10.  34;  13.  104,  I35; 
15.  12;  Sr.  2.  13. 

'"Yt.  19.  26,  28,  29. 

>"Vd.  I.  14,  IS. 

"*  Frag.  5,  FHG.  2.  90:  Diogenes  Laertius,  Proacm,  8;  cf.  also 
Windischmann  in  Sanjana's  Zarathushtra  in  the  Gatlias  and  in  the  Greek 
and  Roman  Classics,  pp.  88,  105. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

DEATH  AND  BEYOND 

The  mightiest  of  men  cower  before  death.  Every  creature 
that  is  born  in  this  earth  dies  when  the  demon  of  death  comes 
to  it.^  The  soul  is  immortal,  and  survives  the  death  of  the  body 
which  is  perishable.^  The  ignorant  man,  intoxicated  with  the 
pride  of  youth,  encircled  in  the  heat  of  passion,  and  enchained 
by  the  bonds  of  fleeting  desires,  forgets  the  transitoriness  and 
death  of  the  body.^  One  who  lives  for  the  body  alone  comes  to 
sorrow  at  the  end  of  life,  and  finds  his  soul  thrown  into  the 
terrible  den  of  Angra  Mainyu.*  Man  should  act  in  such  a 
way  that  his  soul  may  attain  to  heaven  after  death. ^  The  in- 
dividual who  blindly  seeks  the  passing  good  of  the  body,  thus 
sacrificing  the  lasting  good  of  the  soul,  is  merciless  to  himself, 
and  if  he  has  no  mercy  on  himself,  he  cannot  expect  it  from 
others.^  This  ignorance  brings  his  spiritual  ruin.'^  He  should 
not  live  in  forgetfulness  of  everlasting  life,  and  lose  it  by  yielding 
to  his  passions.  Man  sees  his  fellow-beings  snatched  away  from 
this  earth,  but  he  grows  so  indififerent  that  he  forgets  that  his  own 
turn  may  soon  come  to  sever  his  connection  with  this  world. ^ 
The  man  may  be  faring  sumptuously  in  the  forenoon,  but  his  fall 
may  come  in  the  afternoon.^  The  demon  of  death  overpowers 
every  one.  Ever  since  the  world  began,  and  man  graced  this 
earth  with  his  presence,  no  mortal  has  ever  escaped  his  clutches, 
nor  shall  one  ever  escape  until  the  resurrection.^"  The  priests  and 
the  princes,  the  righteous  and  the  wicked,  have  all  to  tread  the 
dreary  path  of  death.^^  Neither  the  first  man,  Gaya  Maretan, 
who  kept  the  world  free  from  disease  and  death,  nor  Haoshyangha, 
who  killed  two-thirds  of  the  demons,  nor  Takhma  Urupi,  who 
bridled  and  rode  on  the  Evil  Spirit,  nor  Yima,  who  dispelled 

'  Aog.  40.  "  lb.  20.  » lb.  53-55. 

^  Aog.  5-7,  25-28.  •  lb.  49.  -  lb.  57,  58,  69. 

'lb.  2,1-37.  'lb.  56.  ''lb.  59. 

*  lb.  28,  38.  '  lb.  39. 

174 


DEATH  AND  BEYOND  I7S 

old  age  and  death  from  his  kingdom,  nor  Dahaka,  who  was  a 
scourge  to  humanity,  nor  Thraetaona,  who  bound  Dahaka,  nor 
Kavi  Usa,  who  flew  in  the  sky,  nor  Franrasyan,  who  hid  himself 
under  the  earth,  could  struggle  successfully  against  death.  All 
these  great  and  mighty  men  delivered  up  their  bodies,  when 
Astovidhotu  grasped  them  by  their  hands.^^ 

The  recital  of  the  sacred  formulas  on  the  deathbed  of 
man  helps  his  soul  when  it  leaves  the  tenement  of  the  body. 
Bodily  death  liberates  the  soul  for  a  higher  life.  This  period 
of  the  separation  of  the  body  and  soul  is  momentous;  it  is  full 
of  fear  and  distress.^^  In  its  utter  bewilderment  the  soul  seeks 
help.  The  recital  of  a  single  Ashem  Vohu,  pronounced  by  a  man 
at  the  last  moments  of  his  life,  is  worth  the  entire  zone  in- 
habited by  man,^*  and  does  him  incalculable  good. 

From  this  world  to  that  which  is  beyond.  The  twofold 
Gathic  division  of  the  universe  into  the  astvant,  '  corporeal,'  and 
manahya,  '  spiritual,'  is  maintained  throughout  all  the  Younger 
Avestan  texts.  One  frequently  meets  with  the  expressions,  '  both 
the  worlds,'  '  this  and  the  next  world,'  '  this  world  which  is 
corporeal,  and  the  next  which  is  spiritual,'  '  the  perishable  and 
the  imperishable,'  and  the  like.  Man  stands  on  the  borderland 
between  the  material  and  spiritual  worlds.  In  the  world  of  the 
living  he  lives  a  short  span  of  life.  Here  he  either  works  for 
the  realization  of  the  great  ideals  that  Ahura  Mazda  has  set  up 
for  him,  and  triumphs;  or  he  falls  away  from  them,  and  fails. 
In  the  world  of  the  dead,  Ahura  Mazda  rewards  man  for  having 
kept  his  commands,  but  visits  with  retribution  all  those  that 
have  disregarded  his  bidding. 

Heaven  and  hell  are  in  the  Younger  Avesta  no  longer  con- 
ditions of  man's  being,  as  they  were  in  the  Gathas,  but  are  actual 
places  located  in  space.  The  process  reaches  its  consummation 
in  the  Pahlavi  works,  but  the  beginning  is  already  made. 

All  souls  dwell  three  nights  on  earth  after  death.  At  the 
dissolution  of  the  body,  the  soul  is  freed  from  its  bodily  prison. 
The  journey  towards  the  next  world  does  not,  however,  begin 
immediately  after  death,  for  the  separation  of  the  soul  from  the 
body  takes  place  by  slow  degrees.  It  requires  full  three  days  and 
nights  before  the  last  vestige  of  the  earthly  bondage  perishes. 
During  this  period  the  soul  stays  on  earth  and  recounts  the  acts 

'^  lb.  60-68,  85-102.  "  Yt.  22.  17.  "  Yt.  21.  14,  15- 


176  DEATH  AND  BEYOND 

done  during  its  life.  It  takes  its  seat  near  the  spot  where  the 
head  of  the  deceased  rested  before  the  corpse  was  removed  to 
the  Tower  of  Silence.  If  the  soul  has  walked  in  the  Path  of 
Righteousness  during  life,  it  spends  its  time  in  chanting  the 
sacred  hymns,  and  experiences  as  much  joy  as  the  whole  of  the 
living  world  can  experience  collectively.^^  It  is  anxiously  long- 
ing for  the  rewards  which  are  to  take  place  at  the  end  of  the 
third  night  after  death.^^ 

Precisely  the  reverse  is  the  case  if  the  dead  one  happens  to 
be  wicked.  The  soul  of  such  a  one  sits  near  the  skull  and 
clamours  in  bewilderment  and  confusion  about  the  terrible  lot 
that  awaits  it,  and  experiences  as  much  suffering  as  the  whole 
of  the  living  world  can  experience  collectively.^^ 

Daena  accompanies  the  soul  to  the  next  world.  Of  the 
various  spiritual  faculties  of  man,  the  daena  is  the  only  one 
I  besides  the  soul  of  which  we  hear  anything  after  the  dissolution 
of  the  body.  On  the  dawn  of  the  fourth  day  after  death,  the 
romantic  journey  of  the  soul  begins  and  its  voyage  into  the  here- 
after is  described  in  allegorical  and  picturesque  words.  The 
soul  of  the  righteous  one  makes  its  triumphal  ascent  to  heaven, 
,  wending  its  way  among  fragrant  perfumes,  and  amid  a  wind  that 
'  blows  from  the  regions  of  the  south,  a  sweet-scented  wind, 
sweeter-scented  by  far  than  any  which  the  soul  ever  inhaled  on 
earth. ^^  There  appears  then  to  the  soul  its  own  daena,  or 
religious  conscience  in  the  shape  of  a  damsel  of  unsurpassed 
beauty,  the  fairest  of  the  fair  in  the  world.^^  Dazzled  by  her 
matchless  beauty  and  grandeur,  the  soul  halts  and  inquires  who 
this  image  may  be,  the  like  of  which  it  had  neither  seen  nor 
heard  tell  of  in  the  material  world.  The  apparition  replies  that 
she  is  the  impersonation  of  the  soul's  own  good  thoughts,  good 
words,  and  good  deeds  in  life.  She  is  nothing  more  than  the 
true  reflex  of  its  own  character.  For,  when  his  friends  and 
neighbours  in  the  corporeal  world  indulged  in  wickedness, 
the  spirit  abiding  in  the  true  believer  always  embraced  good 
thoughts,  good  words,  and  good  deeds.  It  was  this  right- 
eousness of  the  soul  that  had  made  the  daena  so  lovely  and  so 
fair.20 

This  is  a  piece  of  an  allegorical  soliloquy  on  the  part  of  the 

"  Yt.  22.  1-6;  24.  54.    '^Yt.  22.  19-24.  "  Yt.  22.  9;  24.  56. 

**Vd.  19.  27-29.  "  Yt.  22.  7,  8;  24.  55.  '"  Yt.  22.  10-14;  24.  57-60. 


DEATH  AND  BEYOND  I77 

soul,  in  which  the  consciousness  of  its  having  led  a  virtuous  life 
on  earth  brings  it  inner  joy  in  the  future,  and  that  sweet  voice 
of  conscience  comforts.  In  its  flight  to  heaven  which  proves  to 
be  an  eternal  comfort,  such  a  soul,  redeemed  by  its  piety  on  earth, 
is  helped  by  Sraosha,  Rashnu,  the  good  Vayu,  Arshtat,  Mithra, 
and  the  Fravashis  of  the  righteous  in  its  advance  to  the  realms 
of  final  beatitude.^^ 

On  the  other  hand,  the  soul  of  the  wicked  person  is  harassed 
by  the  thought  of  its  wicked  life,  and  marches  at  the  end  of  the 
third  night  on  the  dreary  and  dreadful  path  that  lies  amid  the 
most  foul-scented  wind  blowing  from  the  northern  regions." 
The  full  Avestan  text  is  missing  here,  but  we  gather  from  the 
similar  account  of  the  wicked  soul's  journey  preserved  in  the 
Pahlavi  scriptures  that  the  soul  of  the  sinner  is  confronted  by  the 
personification  of  its  own  conscience  in  the  shape  of  an  ugly 
old  woman  who  mercilessly  taunts  it  for  the  wicked  life  it  has 
led. 

All  souls  have  to  make  their  way  across  the  Chinvat 
Bridge  into  heaven  or  hell.  The  righteous  as  well  as  the  wicked 
souls  must  needs  go  to  this  Bridge  of  Judgment,  made  by  Mazda, 
before  they  can  be  admitted  to  the  realm  of  the  hereafter.^^  Dogs 
are  stationed  at  the  bridge  to  guard  its  transit.^*  These  hounds 
of  the  spirit  realm  help  the  pious  souls  to  cross  the  bridge,  but 
the  wicked  ones  long  in  vain  for  their  aid.  The  dogs  accompany 
the  daena  of  a  good  soul.^^  Whoso  in  the  fulness  of  faith  recites 
the  sacred  Ahuna  Vairya  is  enabled  by  Ahura  Mazda  to  cross 
the  Chinvat  Bridge  and  to  reach  paradise  in  a  threefold  manner, 
namely,  unto  the  best  existence,  the  best  righteousness,  and  the 
best  lights.2^  Ahura  Mazda  proclaims  to  Zarathushtra  certain 
rules  of  righteousness  by  the  practice  of  which  he  could  pass 
over  the  bridge  to  paradise.-^  Speaking  about  the  qualifications 
of  a  priest,  the  Heavenly  Father  informs  the  prophet  that  he 
shall  be  called  a  priest  who  by  his  wise  precepts  teaches  a  man 

"  Aog.  8. 

"Yt.    22.    25. 

'"  Vd.  19.  29,  36;  Sr.  I.  30;  2.  30. 

"  Vd.  13.  9;  cf.  Kuka,  The  Dog  in  the  Vendidad,  in  Zartoshti,  vol.  I, 
pp.  271-280,  Bombay,  1903;  Bloomfield,  Cerberus,  the  Dog  of  Hades,  pp. 
27-30,  Chicago,  1905. 

"Vd.  19.  30. 

"  Ys.  19.  6. 

"  Ys.  71.  16. 


178  DEATH  AND  BEYOND 

to  be  of  easy  conscience  at  the  bridge.^^  In  this  same  connection 
it  may  be  added  that  the  man  who  has  ill-treated  the  Vanghapara 
class  of  dogs  in  this  world  finds  not  his  way  across  this  crucial 
bridge.^^  Besides  the  bare  announcement  that  the  righteous 
souls  can  cross  the  bridge  successfully,  and  that  the  wicked  ones 
fail  so  to  do,^°  we  are  not  furnished  with  a  detailed  description 
of  the  judgment  at  the  bridge,  although  we  have  this  informa- 
tion explicitly  recorded  in  the  Pahlavi  accounts  of  the  fate  of  the 
soul  after  death. 

Heaven 

Four  heavens.  In  contrast  to  the  single  heaven  referred  to 
in  the  Gathas.  we  meet  with  a  fourfold  division  of  heaven  in 
the  Avestan  period.  Garonmana,  or  the  Abode  of  Praise,  re- 
mains the  highest  heaven,  the  realm  of  bliss  that  is  reached  by 
traversing  the  three  lower  heavens,  called  Humata,  or  Good 
Thought,  Hukhta,  or  Good  Words,  and  Hvarshta,  or  Good 
Deeds,  as  beatific  abodes  for  the  soul.  Garonmana,  the  fourth 
and  the  highest  heaven,  is  frequently  designated  in  the  Younger 
Avesta  as  the  place  of  anaghra  raochah,  or  endless  light.^^  The 
generic  name,  however,  for  all  the  four  heavens  is  vahishta  ahu, 
or  Best  Existence.  This  heavenly  region  is  the  shining  and  all- 
happy  abode  of  the  righteous,^^  and  in  Garonmana  dwell  Ahura 
Mazda  and  his  heavenly  retinue,  together  with  those  human  souls 
that  have  reached  perfection  through  righteousness.^^ 

A  cordial  welcome  awaits  the  pious  souls  in  paradise. 
Vohu  Manah,  the  premier  archangel  of  Mazda,  hails  the  pious 
souls  on  their  arrival  in  paradise  in  congratulatory  terms, ^*  and 
he,  as  a  leader  of  the  heavenly  host,  introduces  them  to  Ahura 
Mazda  and  the  other  heavenly  beings.^^  In  a  different  passage 
Ahura  Mazda  himself  is  depicted  as  welcoming  the  righteous 
souls  with  the  same  words  that  Vohu  Manah  uses.^*'  The  souls 
of  the  righteous  persons  that  have  departed  from  this  world  in 

"  Vd.  i8.  6. 

"  Vd.  13.  3. 

""  Vd.  13.  3;  19.  30. 

"  Yt.  22.  IS;  24.  61. 

'*  Ys.  II.  10;  62.  6;  Vsp.  7.  I ;  23.  i;  Yt.  12.  36;  Sr.  i.  27;  2.  27. 

"  Vd.  19.  32,  36. 

"  Vd.  19.  31. 

^  Aog.  10-13. 

"Vd.  7.  52. 


DEATH  AND  BEYOND  i79 

earlier  times  join  furthermore  in  welcoming  the  newcomers  in 
their  midst.^^ 

The  pious  enjoy  eternally  what  but  few  mortals  enjoy, 
and  then  only  for  a  short  period  in  this  world.  The  bountiful 
host  of  paradise  commands  his  heavenly  caterer  to  bring  to  the 
souls  of  the  righteous  the  ambrosia ;  ^*  a  later  work  adds  that 
this  celestial  food  is  served  to  the  righteous  souls  by  the 
Fravashis.  while  robes  embroidered  with  gold  and  golden  thrones 
are  supplied  to  them  by  Vohu  Manah.^^  The  blessed  souls  enjoy 
eternal  felicity  and  incomparable  happiness  in  this  abode  of  end- 
less light.^°  Theirs  is  the  lot  to  receive  the  everlasting  rest 
which  Mazda  has  prepared  for  them,  and  it  is  theirs  to  experience 
as  much  joy  as  one  at  the  zenith  of  his  greatness  enjoys  in  this 
world. *^ 

MisvANA  Gatu 

The  intermediary  place  between  heaven  and  hell.  We  have 
already  referred  to  the  probability  of  the  idea  of  the  intermediary 
place  between  heaven  and  hell  as  embodied  in  the  Gathas.  The 
Younger  Avestan  texts  four  times  mention  a  place  called  misvana 
gatu,  '  the  place  of  mixing.'  *^  It  is  invoked  by  name  along  with 
Garonmana,  the  highest  paradise,  and  the  Chinvat  Bridge.  The 
texts  in  question,  however,  do  not  give  us  any  account  of  this 
place.  The  Later  Pahlavi  texts  render  misvana  gatu  by 
hamcshak  sut  gas,  or  '  the  place  of  eternal  weal,'  which  is  gen- 
erally taken  to  be  identical  with  the  well-known  hamistakan  of 
the  Pahlavi  period. 

Hell 

Four  hells.  Simultaneously  with  the  increase  in  the  number 
of  heavens,  there  is  a  corresponding  increase  in  the  list  of  hells. 
The  Gathas  knew  but  one  hell.  The  Later  Avestan  texts  speak 
of  four  abodes  of  the  damned.  They  are  those  of  Dushmata,  or 
Evil  Thought,  Dushhukhta,  or  Evil  Word,  and  Dushhvarshta,  or 
Evil  Deed,  together  with  the  fourth  and  lowest  hell,  which  has 
no  specific  name  of  its  own  in  the  Avesta,  but  stands  in  juxta- 
position  to   the   highest   Garonmana,    and    receives   the   epithet 

"  Yt.  22.  i6.  ■"'  TdFr.  82,  83. 

"  Yt.  22.  18.  "  Aog.  14. 

"Aog.  15-17.  "Yt.  I.  i;  Sr.  i.  30;  2.  30;  Vd.  19.  36. 


i8o  DEATH  AND  BEYOND 

anaghra  temah,  or  Endless  Darkness.*^  The  wicked  soul  reaches 
this  darkest  abode  with  the  fourth  stride.  The  realm  known  as 
dush  ahu,  or  Evil  Existence,^*  or  again  as  achisJita  anghhu,  or 
Worst  Existence,  are  designations  of  hell  in  general.*^  The 
regions  of  hell,  if  we  look  to  incidental  allusions  in  the  Avesta, 
are  stinking,^®  dreadful,  and  dark.*^ 

The  wicked  souls  reap  in  incessant  tears  the  crop  they 
have  sown  in  the  finite  world.  Angra  Mainyu  orders  the 
wicked  souls  to  be  fed  with  the  foulest  and  the  most  poisonous 
food  in  hell.*^  It  is  their  own  evil  doings  that  bring  them  to 
woe.*^  They  enter  hell  terror-stricken,  like  unto  the  sheep  that 
trembles  before  a  wolf.^"  A  life  of  sorrow  and  suffering  now 
awaits  them.^^  The  Evil  Spirit  exposes  the  wretched  souls  to  the 
mockery  of  the  infernal  rabble. 

"  Yt.  22.  33.  "  Yt.  22.  35,  36. 

"  Yt.  19.  44;  Vd.  19.  47-  ■"  Vd.  5.  62 ;  7.  22. 

"  Ys.  71.  15;  Vd.  5.  62;  7.  22;  WFr.  3.  2.  °»  Vd.  13.  8. 

"  Vd.  19.  47 ;  TdFr.  93-  "  TdFr.  84. 
"  Aog.  28. 


CHAPTER  XX 
THE  RENOVATION 

The  greatest  of  the  renovators.  Zoroaster  in  his  religion 
postulated  a  renovation  of  the  universe,  a  new  dispensation  in 
which  the  world  will  become  perfect  at  the  last  day.  We  learn 
from  Diogenes,  on  the  authority  of  Theopompus  and  Eudemus, 
that  the  classical  authors  were  familiar  with  the  Magian  doctrine 
of  the  millennium  and  the  final  restoration  of  the  world  as  early 
as  in  the  fourth  century  b.c.^  Plutarch  draws  his  materials  on 
this  millennial  doctrine  from  Theopompus.^  In  the  Later  Avestan 
texts  we  sometimes  miss  a  clear  definition  of  the  collective 
judgment  of  the  souls  and  final  regeneration.  But  they  furnish 
us  with  some  stray  passages  which  cursorily  deal  with  the  work 
of  the  Renovation  at  the  millennium  and  of  the  saviour-renovators 
who  will  bring  this  to  pass. 

The  world  progresses  towards  perfection.  Iniquity  and 
wrong  are  to  be  ultimately  supplanted  by  equity  and  right.  The 
world  is  to  be  restored  to  a  veritable  heaven  on  earth.  The 
goodness  of  Ahura  Mazda  makes  it  imperative  that  the  entire 
creation  shall  finally  be  saved.  The  faithful  are  confident  of  this 
final  event,  and  they  know  that  this  accomplishment  will  be  the 
end  of  the  world,  when  right  shall  triumph  supreme.  In  his  daily 
prayers  the  true  believer  prays  that  the  fire  that  burns  in  his 
house  may  remain  shining  till  the  day  of  the  good  Renovation.'' 
Spenta  Armaiti,  the  genius  of  earth,  is  likewise  implored  to  re- 
ceive and  to  rear  the  seed  that  men  emit  in  their  dreams,  and 
ultimately  to  deliver  them  back  as  holy  men  at  the  time  of 
Renovation.* 

The  texts  speak  of  certain  great  souls,  three  in  number,  in- 
cluding the  saviour  paramount,  that  will  usher  in  this  period. 
These  are  called  the  Saoshyants  in  the  Zoroastrian  terminology. 


*  Proaem.  9.  ^  Ys.  62.  3 ;  Ny.  5.  9. 

'  Is.  et  Os.  47.  -  Vd.  18.  SI. 

181 


i82  THE  RENOVATION 

The  Fravardin  Yasht  ^  mentions  the  chief  renovators  who  will 
prepare  the  way  for  the  last  saviour.  Zarathushtra's  own  kith 
and  kin,  a  superman  of  miraculous  powers,  born  in  supernatural 
manner,  will  finally  descend  upon  earth  to  renovate  the  world. 
Astvatereta,  or  the  Saoshyant  proper,  will  be  immaculately  con- 
ceived through  a  virgin  called  Vispataurvi,  or  '  the  all-trium- 
phant.' ^  This  Saoshyant  par  excellence  is  the  most  eminent 
restorer,  he  is  called  the  friend  of  Ahura  Mazda,  the  meritorious 
one,  who  will  bring  the  mighty  work  to  completion.  This  par- 
ticular Yasht,^  as  just  stated,  incidentally  mentions  Zarathushtra's 
seed  as  watched  over  by  ninety-nine  thousand  nine  hundred  and 
ninety-nine  Fravashis.  Passages  such  as  these  in  the  Avesta 
contain  in  embryo  the  doctrine  of  the  immaculate  birth  which 
is  later  elaborated  by  the  Pahlavists. 

This  final  Saoshyant  will  be  helped  in  his  great  undertaking 
by  pious  comrades  or  attendants,  who  will  be,  as  the  description 
says,  fiend-smiting,  of  good  thoughts,  good  words,  and  good  deeds, 
and  who  are  such  as  have  never  known  falsehood.^  The  Kingly 
Glory  will  cleave  unto  them,**  and  the  great  Saoshyant  will  profit 
the  whole  bodily  world  and  withstand  the  Druj.^^ 

The  final  reconciliation  of  the  entire  creation  to  its  creator. 
The  world  will  henceforth  neither  grow  old  nor  die,  decay  nor 
rot,  but  will  be  ever  fresh  and  ever  living ;  death  will  be  no  more, 
life  and  immortality  will  come  to  pass  forever  and  the  dead  will 
rise  up  again."  Plutarch  records  that  it  is  the  Magian  belief 
that  at  the  time  of  the  Renovation  mankind  will  speak  one 
language  and  have  one  commonwealth;  men  will  live  without 
food  and  they  will  not  cast  shadows.^^  Vohu  Manah  at  the 
time  of  this  final  dispensation  will  smite  Aka  Manah;  Truth 
will  rout  Falsehood;  Haurvatat  and  Ameretat  will  smite  once 
and  for  all  the  fiends  of  hunger  and  thirst,  at  which  moment 
the  deadly  Aeshma  will  bow  and  flee  helpless  forever.^^  The 
demons  are  believed  to  have  existed  as  long  as  physical  and 
moral  imperfections  lasted;  with  the  cessation  of  all  such  evils, 
the  fiends  will  be  no  more.  The  Saoshyants  will  join  in  reciting 
the  Airyaman  Ishya  prayer,  and  the  divine  Kingdom  of  Ahura 

'  Yt.  13.  128.  '"  Yt.  13.  129. 

*Yt.  13.  142;  19.  92;  Vd.  19.  5-         "Yt.  19-  II.  12,  19,  20,  23,  24,  89, 

'  Yt.  13.  62.  90 ;  WFr.  4.  3. 

*  Yt.  19.  95.  "Is.  et  Os.  47. 

•  Yt.  19.  89.  "  Yt.  19.  95,  96. 


THE  RENOVATION  183 

Mazda  will  come  to  pass,  as  the  sovereignty  of  Angra  Mainyu 
will  then  end.  Impotent,  the  Prince  of  Evil  will  acknowledge 
his  defeat  in  the  warfare  that  has  gone  on  for  ages  between  the 
power  of  Right  and  of  Wrong.  Bowing  before  Ahura  Mazda, 
Angra  Mainyu  will  hide  himself  with  the  demons  in  the  earth.^"* 
Evil  will  forthwith  vanish,  and  with  it  will  disappear  all  evil 
propensities  in  man.  With  the  disappearance  of  evil  from  the 
universe,  good  will  prevail  everywhere  and  for  all  time ;  and  the 
accursed  name  of  Angra  Mainyu  will  be  forgotten,  Ahura 
Mazda  will  be  forever,  even  as  he  has  been  from  all  eternity. 

"Yt.  19.  96;  WFr.  4.  2,  3. 


CHAPTER  XXI 

ZOROASTRIANISM  UNDER  THE  FOREIGN  YOKE 

Alexander  consigns  the  Zoroastrian  scriptures  to  the 
flames.  Cyrus  had  made  Persia  the  queen  of  Asia,  and  it  was 
in  Persia  that  East  and  West  first  met.  The  history  of  the 
Achaemenians  was  a  long  struggle  of  wars  with  nations,  and  a 
considerable  part  of  this  warfare  was  a  conflict  with  the  West. 
Alexander  crushed  the  Iranian  armies  at  Arbela,  and  wrested 
the  sceptre  from  the  hands  of  Darius  III,  in  330  B.C.,  and  the 
structure  of  the  Iranian  empire  was  shattered  to  pieces.  Great 
as  was  this  national  catastrophe,  still  greater  was  the  spiritual 
loss  involved  in  the  destruction  of  the  holy  scriptures  of  Zoro- 
astrianism,  which  perished  in  the  conflagration  of  Persepolis 
when  the  great  conqueror,  in  a  fit  of  drunkenness,  delivered  the 
palaces  of  the  Achaemenians  to  the  flames.^  Fire,  the  most  sacred 
emblem  of  Iran,  was  wantonly  utilized  in  consuming  the  Word 
of  Ormazd.  The  ill-fated  Darius  had  ordered  the  two  archetype 
copies  to  be  preserved  in  the  Dizh-i  Nipisht  and  Ganj-i  Shapigan.^ 
The  first,  deposited  in  the  archives  of  Persepolis,  perished  in  the 
conflagration.  The  second  copy  of  the  sacred  writings,  in  the 
Ganj-i  Shapigan,  we  are  informed,  was  done  into  Greek,^  though 
more  probably  it  met  with  a  similar  fate,  Ahriman  had  sent 
Zohak  and  Afrasiab  as  the  scourges  to  Iran,  but  their  ravages 
paled  before  the  irrevocable  harm  done  by  this  fact  of  Alex- 
ander's wanton  vandalism.  Literary  Iran  has  known  him  as  her 
arch-enemy,  and  the  Pahlavi  writers  have  branded  him  '  ac- 
cursed,' '  evil-destined,'  and  an  envoy  of  Ahriman.  After  a 
long  period  of  darkness,  following  his  ill-destined  invasion  of 
Persia,  Iran  once  more  recovered  her  political  autonomy,  but  she 
never  regained,  in  their  pristine  fulness,  the  holy  works  of  her 
great  Prophet. 

^Diodorus,  17.  72;  Curtius,  5.  7;  Dk.,  vol.  9,  P-  569. 
'  Dk.,  vol.  9.  P-  577- 
*  Dk.,  vol.  9,  p.  569. 

184 


ZOROASTRIANISM  UNDER  THE  FOREIGN  YOKE  185 

Zoroastrianism  thrives  better  under  the  Parthians  than 
under  the  Seleucids.  The  premature  death  of  the  great  con- 
queror brought  an  end  of  his  ambition  of  hellenizing  Persia. 
The  Philhellenic  princes  that  ruled  over  the  destinies  of  Persia 
for  the  long  period  of  five  and  a  half  centuries  that  intervened 
between  the  overthrow  of  the  Achaemenians  and  the  rise  of  the 
Sasanians  failed  to  accomplish  anything  in  that  imperialistic  di- 
rection. Disintegration  followed  almost  immediately  after  Alex- 
ander's death,  under  the  Seleucid  satrapies,  and  less  than  a 
century  had  elapsed  before  Arsaces  succeeded  in  founding  a 
strong  empire  in  Parthia  about  250  B.C.  We  have  no  means  to 
ascertain  the  undercurrents  of  religious  thought  among  the  Zoro- 
astrians  during  this  period.  From  what  little  information  we 
get  we  find  that  in  the  Parthians  Zoroastrianism  found  better 
masters  than  in  the  Seleucids.  Mithradates,  Tiridates,  Rhodaspes, 
and  Artabanus  are  some  of  the  names  of  the  Parthian  kings  that 
savour  of  a  partiality  for  Zoroastrianism.  The  Magi  exercised  a 
considerable  influence  at  the  Parthian  court.  They  had  their  place 
in  the  council  of  the  state.*  Pliny  informs  us  that  Tiridates,  the 
brother  of  Vologeses  I,  was  initiated  in  the  mysteries  of  the  Magi.^ 
We  have  on  the  authority  of  Tacitus  that  he  was  a  priest.® 

Zoroastrian  practices  embraced  by  the  Parthians.  In  the 
early  days  of  their  empire,  at  least,  the  Parthians  were  strongly 
influenced  by  Zoroastrianism  in  their  religious  beliefs.  They 
venerated  the  sacred  elements,  especially  the  fire,  worshipped 
the  sun  under  the  name  of  Mithra,  and  in  accordance  with  the 
tenets  of  Zoroastrianism,  exposed  dead  bodies  to  the  light  of  the 
sun  and  the  birds  of  prey.'^  The  fire  altar,  emblematic  of  Iranian 
influence,  is  a  common  feature  on  the  reverse  side  of  the  coins  of 
the  Parthian  rulers.  Tiridates  betrays  an  exaggerated  notion  of 
the  Zoroastrian  injunctions  for  the  purity  of  the  elements,  when, 
invited  by  Nero  to  receive  the  crown  of  Armenia,  he  avoided  the 
sea  route  and  went  to  Rome  by  land.  Prompted  by  the  same 
scruples  against  defiling  water,  his  royal  brother  declined  to  go 
to  Rome,  and  invited  his  Roman  contemporary  to  Persia.*  One 
of  the  five  kings  of  this  royal  house  that  bore  the  name  Vologeses, 

*  Strabo,  p.  5i5- 
"Nat.  Hist.  30.  6. 
'  Annales,  15.  24. 

'  Cf.  Rawlinson,   The  Sixth  Great   Oriental  Monarchy,  pp.  399.  400, 
London,  1873. 

'  Dio  Cassius,  63.  1-7. 


i86         ZOROASTRIANISM  UNDER  THE  FOREIGN  YOKE 

ordered  a  collection  to  be  made  of  the  scattered  fragments  of 
the  manuscript  material  that  might  have  survived  the  period  that 
for  nearly  five  centuries  threatened  the  utter  destruction  of  the 
sacred  scriptures  of  Zoroaster's  faith  and  menaced  even  that 
which  was  preserved  in  oral  tradition.  Nevertheless,  Dinkart 
informs  us  that  all  that  could  be  recovered  of  the  lost  Zoroastrian 
canon  at  this  time  was  only  as  much  as  could  be  retained  by 
any  one  Dastur  in  his  memory.®"^^ 

Classical  references  to  Zoroastrianism  during  this  period. 
Our  knowledge  about  the  stfite  of  Zoroastrianism  during  this 
period  is  very  scanty,  and  the  occasional  references  made  by  the 
classical  writers  of  this  time  to  the  religious  practices  of  the 
Zoroastrians  help  us  in  gaining  some  more  information  on  the 
religious  history  of  the  faith.  We  have  often  referred  in  earlier 
pages  to  the  works  of  Strabo  and  Diogenes  Laertius,  who  draw 
their  material  from  the  early  Greek  writers  as  well  as  base  their 
statements  on  their  personal  investigation.  We  gather  some 
more  particulars  on  the  subject  from  the  incidental  references  of 
other  writers.  Porphyry  "  mentions  on  the  authority  of  Eubulus 
that  the  Magi  are  divided  into  three  classes,  the  first  and  the  most 
learned  of  which  neither  kill  nor  eat  an>1:hing  living.^^  Diogenes 
Laertius  states  that  vegetables,  cheese,  and  bread  form  their  food, 
and  they  content  themselves  with  the  plain  ground  for  their 
bed."  Clement  of  Alexandria  "  mentions  a  sect  of  the  Magi  that 
observed  the  life  of  celibacy.^®  Speaking  about  the  designation  by 
which  the  Zoroastrian  priests  were  known  in  Cappadocia  in  his 
days,  Strabo  relates  that  in  addition  to  their  usual  name  of  the 
Magi,  the  priests  were  called  puraithoi,  the  equivalent  of  the 
Avestan  designation  athravan,  or  fire-priest.^^ 

Zoroastrianism  spreads  its  influence  abroad.  The  Magi  had 
established  themselves  during  the  Parthian  period  in  large  num- 
bers in  eastern  Asia  Minor,  Galatia,  Phrygia,  Lydia,  and  even 
in  Egypt.  These  colonies  of  the  Zoroastrian  priests  became  an 
active  source  of  the  diffusion  of  the  Zoroastrian  beliefs.^"    Strabo 

"-"  SBE.,  vol.  2>7,  bk.  8.  i.  21,  pp.  9,  lO- 
"a.d.  233-306. 
*'  De  Abstinentia,  4.  16. 
*°  Proaem.  7. 
"  A.D.  first  century. 
"  Stromata,  3,  p.  191- 

"  Strabo,  p.  733-  „         .  _,  . 

""  Cumont,  The  Oriental  Religions  in  Roman  Paganism,  p.  139,  Chi- 
cago, 191 1. 


ZOROASTRIANISM  UNDER  THE  FOREIGN  YOKE         187 

informs  us  that  the  Zoroastrian  divinities  were  worshipped 
in  Armenia,  Cappadocia,  and  throughout  Northeastern  Asia 
Minor.-^  He  mentions  having  seen  in  Cappadocia  the  image  of 
Omanus,  that  is,  Vohu  Manah  carried  in  a  procession.^^  The 
people  of  Pontus  remained  partially  attached  to  Zoroastrianism 
up  to  the  first  century,  when  they  exchanged  the  faith  of  Zoro- 
aster with  that  of  Jesus.  Pausanias,^^  refers  to  the  Magian  rites 
practised  in  Lydia  in  the  second  century.-* 

Of  all  the  Zoroastrian  Yazatas,  Mithra  attained  to  the  great- 
est prominence  during  this  period.  The  Avestan  texts  constantly 
speak  of  Mithra  as  the  lord  of  wide  pastures,  and  Mithra  gathered 
the  largest  number  of  flocks  under  his  protection  in  the  field  of 
spirit.  Zoroastrian  in  its  basic  principles,  Mithra's  cult  was  soon 
surcharged  with  Semitic  accretions  and  spread  far  and  wide 
under  this  new  syncretic  form.  We  have  already  seen  from  the 
activities  of  Mithra  as  described  in  the  Avestan  works  that  besides 
being  a  divinity  of  light  and  truth,  he  was  also  the  tutelary 
divinity  of  the  fighting  armies.  This  warlike  trait  of  Mithra  even 
appealed  strongly  to  the  martial  instincts  of  the  Roman  armies 
that  poured  forth  into  the  Parthian  regions.  Mithra's  cult  was 
introduced  in  the  West  by  these  soldiers,  and  his  votaries  ex- 
isted in  Rome  under  Pompey  in  67  B.C.  The  Iranian  divinity 
rapidly  conquered  vast  dominions  for  his  cult  in  Europe,  and 
brought  a  large  multitude  of  votaries  from  distant  lands  to  his 
feet.  Mithra  was  officially  recognized  in  307  a.d.  by  Diocletian 
as  the  protector  of  his  empire,  and  Mithraism  proved  a  formidable 
foe  of  Christianity  until  the  end  of  the  fourth  century. 

In  the  near  east  Mithra's  cult  had  spread  in  the  different 
parts  of  Asia  Minor  during  this  period,  and  reached  India  in  the 
third  century,  where  it  had  its  root  in  the  North  Western  prov- 
inces and  Gujarat.^^ 

Antiochus  I,  king  of  Commagene  on  the  Euphrates  in  his 
epitaph  (about  35  B.C.)  pays  homage  to  Ahura  Mazda,  Mithra, 
and  Verethraghna.-^^ 


23 

23 
34 


Pp.     512,     732,     733. 
P.     732. 

Second  century  a.d. 
'  5-  27.  5. 

"  Bhandarkar,    Vaisnavism,  S'aivism,   and   Minor  Religious   Systems 
in  Grundriss  der  Indo-Arischen  Philologie,  3-  6,  pp.   I53-I57,  Strassburg, 

"a  Dittenberger,  Orientis  Graeci  Inscriptiones  Selectae,  vol.  i,  p.  598- 
Lipsiae,  1903-1905. 


i88         ZOROASTRIANISM  UNDER  THE  FOREIGN  YOKE 

The  appearance  of  the  Zoroastrian  angels  Atar,  Maongha, 
Tishtrya,  Mithra,  Verethraghna,  Vata,  and  others  on  the  coins 
of  the  Indo-Scythian  kings  from  the  time  of  Kanishka,  in  the 
second  century,  proves  the  strong  Zoroastrian  influence  outside 
Iran,^^ 

Zoroastrianism  at  the  close  of  the  Parthian  empire.  The 
fact  that  some  of  the  Parthian  kings  were  favourably  inchned 
to  Zoroastrianism  did  not  succeed  in  saving  the  Zoroastrian 
Church  from  falHng  into  decay.  Heresies  and  scepticism  were 
rampant,  it  seems,  and  the  priesthood  was  steeped  in  ignorance.^'' 
The  language  of  the  Avesta  had  long  ceased  to  be  a  living 
tongue,  and  the  knowledge  of  the  holy  books  written  in  that 
language  was  on  its  decline.  Five  centuries  of  literary  chaos 
thus  elapsed  before  the  dawn  of  the  real  Zoroastrian  reforma- 
tion dispelled  the  darkness  and  once  more  illumined  the  Maz- 
dayasnian  world  with  new  light. 

^^  Cf.   Stein,  Zoroastrian  Deities  on  Indo-Scythian  Coins,  in  Indian 
Antiquary,  vol.  17,  pp.  89-98. 
"  AV.  I.  13-1S. 


THE    PAHLAVI    PERIOD 
FROM    THE   THIRD    TO    THE   NINTH    CENTURY 


CHAPTER  XXII 

ZOROASTRIANISM  AS  TAUGHT  BY  THE 
PAHLAVI  WORKS 

Ardashir,  a  Magus,  rejuvenates  Zoroastrianism.  With  the 
fall  of  the  Achaemenian  emph-e  were  extinguished  the  last 
sparks  of  the  fire  of  racial  jealousy  between  the  Medes  and 
Persians.  Common  hardships  and  common  sorrows  had  oblit- 
erated all  traces  of  bitter  feeling  for  one  another.  The  Seleucid 
period  and  the  five  centuries  of  Parthian  rule,  as  another  great 
empire  in  Iran,  served  all  the  more  to  make  them  now  one  com- 
pact homogeneous  people,  thinking  with,  one  mind,  feeling  with 
one  heart,  and  acting  with  one  aim.  As  already  pointed  out,  the 
Magi  did  not  receive  recognition  in  the  Avesta.  It  is  not  so  in 
the  Pahlavi  period.  The  Avestan  term  athravan  remains  during 
this  era  as  a  class  designation  alone,  but  magopat,  which  later 
becomes  mobad,  is  used  throughout  the  Pahlavi  literature,  equally 
as  a  class  designation  for  priesthood  and  as  a  personal  title 
of  a  priest  to  distinguish  him  from  a  layman.  Significant  in  this 
light  becomes  the  fact  that  although  the  Persians  of  old  had 
defeated  the  Medes  and  their  sacerdotal  caste,  the  Magi,  it  was 
now  a  Magus  again  that  was  destined  to  revive  the  national 
glory  of  Iran,  and  restore  their  ancient  faith.  The  Kingly  Glory 
of  Iran  clave  to  a  hero  of  the  house  of  Sasan  in  the  province  of 
Ears,  who  was  alike  priest  and  king.^  Ardashir  was  his  name, 
and  the  Iranian  world  rang  with  the  praises  of  this  son  of  Babak, 
whose  fame  is  writ  large  in  the  history  of  Zoroastrianism. 

This  founder  of  the  Sasanian  dynasty  won  his  spurs  in  the 
battle  against  Ardavan,  the  last  of  the  Parthian  kings,  in  a.d.  224. 
People  turned  their  eager  eyes  to  him  for  the  national  emancipa- 
tion from  the  heavy  yoke  of  the  foreigners.  His  was  the  task  of 
rebuilding  the  shattered  fragments  of  the  ancient  Persian  em- 
pire upon  the  ruins  of  the  Parthian  empire.  When  he  succeeded 
in   consolidating  the   various   states    of   Iran   into   one   mighty 

^  Agathias,  2.  26. 
191 


192    ZOROASTRIANISM  AS  TAUGHT  BY  PAHLAVI  WORKS 

commonwealth  under  his  sceptre,  he  proceeded  vigorously  there- 
upon to  establish  a  polity  in  conformity  with  the  teachings  of 
Zoroaster  which  would  unite  his  empire  as  Church  and  State. 
It  was  through  Ardashir  that  Zoroastrianism  became  once  more 
enthroned  as  the  creed  paramount,  after  a  lapse  of  fully  five 
centuries  and  remained  so  for  four  centuries  under  the  House 
of  Sasan.  The  king  himself,  being  of  sacerdotal  caste,  strongly 
upheld  the  doctrine  of  the  unity  of  the  Church  and  the  State. 
The  two,  he  said,  are  like  brother  and  sister ;  neither  can  flourish 
without  the  other.^  They  both  are  interwoven  together  like  two 
pieces  of  brocade.^  The  Dinkart,  which  is  the  greatest  of 
the  Pahlavi  works  of  this  period,  upholds  the  divine  right  of 
kings  and  states  that  if  the  temporal  power  of  the  glorious  king 
Jamshid  had  been  blended  with  the  spiritual  power  of  the  su- 
preme priest  Zoroaster,  the  Evil  Spirit  would  have  lain  low 
long  ere  this,  and  the  Kingdom  of  Righteousness  would  have 
been  established  on  earth  once  and  forever.*  Both  of  these 
powers  will  be  concentrated  in  the  final  saviour,  who  is  to 
enable  man  to  gain  the  final  victory  over  the  Kingdom  of 
Wickedness.^ 

Ardashir,  as  a  pontifif-king  himself,  commissioned  his  high- 
priest  Tansar  to  collect  the  scattered  Avestan  works  and  thus  to 
prepare  an  authorized  compilation  of  the  sacred  texts.®  The 
enthusiasm  evoked  among  the  faithful  at  the  restoration  of  their 
lost  scriptures  presents  a  situation  seldom  paralleled  in  history, 
and  certainly  never  surpassed  in  the  religious  development  of 
Zoroastrianism. 

The  revival  of  Zoroastrianism  continues  with  unabating 
zeal.  The  great  work  inaugurated  by  the  first  of  the  royal 
House  of  Sasan  was  zealously  continued  by  his  descendants  and 
notably  by  Shapur  H,^-^  who  brought  the  work  to  completion  with 
the  help  of  his  illustrious  Dastur  and  premier  Adarbad  Mahra- 
spand.^  Mani's  heresy  was  at  its  height  during  this  period,  and 
Adarbad  strove  hard  to  restore  the  faith  of  his  people  that  was 
undermined  by  the  misguided  leader's  heretical  teachings.  In 
order  to  prove  the  marvels  of  the  faith,  Adarbad  is  reported  to 
have  submitted  himself  to  the  ordeal  of  the  molten  metal  and  to 

*  Masudi,  tr.  Barbier  de  Meynard,  2.  162.  '  Ih.,  vol.  9,  P-  578. 
'  Shah-namah,  tr.  Warner,  vol.  6,  p.  286.  '"'  a.d.   309-379- 

*  Dk.,  vol.  3,  pp.   175,   176.  •  Dk.,  vol.  9,  p.  579- 
•/&.,  p.  176. 


ZOROASTRIANISM  AS  TAUGHT  BY  PAHLAVI  WORKS    193 

have  come  out  unscathed.^"  King  Shapur  thereupon  declared  the 
work,  as  thus  redacted,  to  be  authoritative,  and  he  commanded 
that  anything  outside  this  canonical  collection  should  not  be 
countenanced.  Another  source  states  that  still  further  steps  v^ere 
taken  to  put  the  truth  of  the  religion  to  the  test.  Several  pious 
mobads  were  convoked  to  attend  at  the  temple  of  the  fire  Froba, 
and  there  to  consider  the  momentous  question  of  deputing  one 
of  their  number  to  visit,  in  a  vision,  the  spiritual  world  and  thus 
to  bring  back  from  the  angels  themselves  a  first-hand  knowledge 
of  matters  spiritual  for  the  complete  restoration  of  the  religion. 
Seven  holy  men  were  first  elected  from  the  assembly.  Out  of 
this  number  Arda  Viraf  was  selected  as  the  most  righteous  and 
saintly.  After  preliminary  ceremonies  this  holy  man  entered 
into  a  trance  for  seven  days  and  nights,  during  which  he  was 
transported  in  spirit  to  the  other  world.  His  soul  ascended  into 
the  realm  of  heaven,  traversed  the  spiritual  regions,  and  after 
beholding  paradise  visited  likewise  the  inferno.  Viraf  described 
the  experience  of  his  visions  and  thus  contributed  to  rehabilitating 
the  faith  of  the  people  in  their  historic  religion. 

The  Pahlavi  works  are  vnritten  by  many  hands  in  successive 
periods.  Though  the  canon  was  declared  closed  by  the  edict  of 
Shapur  II,  the  work  of  rendering  the  Avestan  texts  into  Pahlavi 
with  exegetic  commentaries,  and  the  composition  of  original 
works  in  the  court  language,  continued  throughout  the  Sasanian 
period,  and  even  long  after  the  downfall  of  the  empire.  Few 
if  any  of  the  exegetical  works  on  Zoroastrianism  written  during 
the  Sasanian  period  have  survived  the  devastating  hands  of  the 
conquering  hordes  of  the  Arabs,  and  almost  all  of  the  important 
Pahlavi  works  that  we  possess  to-day  were  written  under  the 
Abbasid  Caliphs.  The  Persians  in  whose  veins  flowed  the  kingly 
blue  blood  had  helped  the  Abbasids  in  overthrowing  the  Umay- 
yads,  thus  avenging  themselves  upon  their  national  foes,  the 
Arabs.  This  greatly  elevated  the  position  of  the  Zoroastrians  at 
the  royal  court  of  Bagdad.  During  this  period  it  was  that  the 
composition  of  the  Pahlavi  treatises  was  undertaken  with  renewed 
vigour.  To  the  ninth  century  we  owe  much  of  the  Pahlavi 
literature  that  has  come  down  to  us.  Thus  the  Pahlavi  literature 
covers  a  period  of  about  seven  centuries,  beginning  from  the 

"SIS.  15.  16;  Sg.  10.  70;  Dk.,  SBE.,  vol.  47,  bk.  7-  5-  5,  PP.  74.  75; 
AV.  I.  16. 


194    ZOROASTRIANISM  AS  TAUGHT  BY  PAHLAVI  WORKS 

first  Sasanian  ruler,  Ardashir,  or  still  earlier,  and  stretching  down- 
wards to  the  times  of  the  illustrious  Caliph  of  the  Abbasid 
dynasty,  al-Ma'mun,  or  even  later.  The  invention  of  the  modern 
Persian  alphabet  restricted  the  use  of  Pahlavi  to  the  learned 
clerics,  who  continued  to  make  some  slight  additions  to  the 
Pahlavi  literature  up  to  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century.^^ 

The  Pahlavi  literature  has  its  roots  in  the  Avestan  soil. 
The  Pahlavi  works  allege  that  the  Avestan  Nasks  had  perished, 
but  the  tradition  transmitted  orally  from  father  to  son  and  the 
fragments  of  the  sacred  texts  did  not  suffer  the  Avestan  lore  to 
die  out  entirely.  The  extant  Pahlavi  works  contain  quotations 
from  Avestan  works  that  have  not  come  down  to  us,  and  this 
may  help  to  show  that  the  later  writers  either  quoted  from 
memory  or  that  they  had  access  to  Avestan  works,  since  lost, 
when  they  wrote  their  Pahlavi  treatises ;  or  possibly  it  may  ser\'e 
to  prove  both  facts.  Nay,  some  of  the  Pahlavi  works  seem  to 
be  wholly  or  in  part  reproductions  of  some  of  the  Avesta  Nasks, 
and  most  scholars  agree  with  West  that  the  Pahlavi  Bundahishn 
is  an  epitome  of  the  Avestan  Damdad  Nask,  that  has  since 
disappeared.^2  xhjg  leads  us  to  the  probable  conclusion  that 
besides  the  two  archetype  copies  deposited  in  the  royal  treasuries 
at  Persepolis  and  Samarkand,  there  may  have  existed  other 
copies  of  these  Nasks,  in  full  or  in  part,  in  private  possession 
or  in  the  more  notable  fire-temples.  The  internal  evidence  of 
some  of  the  most  important  Pahlavi  works  show  us  that  they 
preserve  much  of  the  material  derived  from  Avestan  sources, 
which  still  existed  in  their  days,  but  have  been  subsequently 
lost,  and  thus  make  up  for  the  loss  of  the  original  Avestan  books 
to  a  considerable  extent. 

The  Pahlavi  literature  is  the  completion  of  the  Avestan 
works.  The  Pahlavi  works  explain,  elaborate,  and  describe  in 
detail  much  of  what  is  stated  in  brief  in  the  original  Avestan 
texts.  This  is  the  inestimable  value  of  the  Pahlavi  literature. 
A  few  examples  may  serve  to  illustrate  this  statement. 

The  Avestan  texts  frequently  mention  '  the  Time  of  Long 
Duration,'  a  period  carved  out  from  eternity  as  the  age  for  the 
duration  of  the  present  world,  but  give  no  idea,  as  far  as  the 
texts  have  been  preserved,  as  to  the  length  of  this  mighty  aeon. 

"  West,  Pahlavi  Literature,  in  GIrPh.  2.  80. 
"  SBE.,  vol.  5.  int.  xxiv. 


ZOROASTRIANISM  AS  TAUGHT  BY  PAHLAVI  WORKS    195 

It  is  to  the  Pahlavi  books  that  we  have  to  turn  to  ascertain  the 
specific  duration  of  this  period,  for  the  millennial  doctrine  is 
recognized  but  not  described  in  the  Avestan  writings  that  we 
possess  to-day.  It  is  worked  out  in  full  detail  in  the  Pahlavi 
works.  We  do  not  find  it  in  the  Avestan  writings  that  we  possess 
to-day.  This  fact  might  even  suggest  that  the  idea  originated 
with  the  Pahlavists,  but  such  is  not  the  case,  for  we  know  from 
Plutarch  that  Theopompus,  who  flourished  in  the  fourth  cen- 
tury B.C.,  or  a  little  before  the  close  of  the  Avestan  period,  was 
well  acquainted  with  this  doctrine  of  the  Zoroastrians,  and  wrote 
about  it  in  his  works.^^ 

The  Later  Avestan  texts  speak  of  the  future  judgment,  the 
rising  of  the  dead,  the  renovation,  but  it  is  the  Pahlavi  works 
that  acquaint  us  with  the  method  of  the  administration  of  justice 
in  the  heavenly  tribunal  and  the  final  restoration  of  the  universe. 

The  texts  of  the  Younger  Avesta,  as  noted  above,  speak  of 
different  heavens  and  hells,  but  the  Pahlavi  works  locate  them, 
and  give  a  detailed  description  of  the  area  they  cover,  the 
boundaries  that  divide  them  from  one  another,  and  the  condi- 
tions that  prevail  in  them. 

The  trend  of  the  religious  thought  of  the  Pahlavi  period. 
We  have  described  the  change  from  the  Gathic  to  the  Avestan 
texts  as  a  retrograde  step;  the  Pahlavi  texts  are  still  farther 
removed  from  the  Gathas.  The  Gathic  ideal  lingers  and  con- 
tinues to  be  admired,  but  it  has  ceased  to  influence.  It  evokes 
praise  from  the  Pahlavi  writers,  but  fails  to  inspire  them  with  its 
abstract  tone. 

Zoroaster  is  a  historical  personage  in  the  Gathas.  In  the 
Later  Avesta  he  is  surrounded  by  an  aureole,  and  becomes  super- 
human ;  but  in  the  Pahlavi  works  his  personality  is  enshrouded 
by  miracles,  and  he  is  transformed  into  a  myth.  The  fascination 
for  marvels  in  religion  is  an  unmistakable  sign  of  the  times. 
Christian  bishops,  who,  as  we  shall  see  in  the  further  stage  of 
our  inquiry,  carried  on  inveterate  disputes  with  the  Zoroastrian 
clergy  in  Persia,  based  the  claim  of  the  greatness  of  their  own 
religion  on  miracles.  Perhaps  in  consequence  the  life-story  of 
Zoroaster,  as  told  by  the  writers  of  the  Pahlavi  period,  is  sim- 
ilarly stamped  with  the  mark  of  the  miraculous.  The  Gathas 
and  the  Younger  Avesta  speak  of  the  prophet's  conferences  with 

"Is.  et  Os.  47. 


196    ZOROASTRIANISM  AS  TAUGHT  BY  PAHLAVI  WORKS 

the  Amshaspands,  or  archangels,  and  his  communing  with  them. 
The  Pahlavi  texts,  as  we  shall  see  in  the  chapter  on  the  Amshas- 
pands, state  that  they  came  to  the  court  of  King  Gushtasp  as  the 
envoys  of  Ormazd,  to  give  proof  of  the  divine  calling  of  the 
prophet.  Moreover,  when  Zoroaster  met  Vohuman,  he  actually 
saw  the  body  and  the  face  of  the  archangel,  his  size,  and  his 
garments,  and  in  these  celestial  conferences  with  the  archangels 
the  prophet  was  requested  by  each  in  turn  to  command  mankind 
to  take  due  care  of  the  concrete  thing  under  the  special  charge 
of  each  as  an  Amshaspand  and  not  merely  the  abstract  virtue 
that  each  impersonates.  Vohuman,  for  instance,  as  the  genius 
of  good  mind,  did  not  emphasize  the  faithful  adherence  to  good 
thoughts,  but  contented  himself  with  reminding  the  prophet  to 
teach  mankind  to  take  care  of  his  cattle.  Artavahisht,  the  genius 
of  Righteousness,  gave  no  command  to  Zaratusht  to  exhort  men 
to  follow  the  path  of  Righteousness,  but  taught  him  that  the  best 
way  of  propitiating  the  heavenly  spirit  was  to  propitiate  his 
fire.  Similarly  the  other  archangels  in  these  celestial  interviews 
did  not  hold  up  as  the  ideals  the  virtues  over  which  they  preside, 
but  they  inculcated  due  preservation  of  their  respective  earthly 
objects.  A  Pazand  penitential  prayer,  whose  authorship  is  at- 
tributed to  Dastur  Adarbad  Mahraspand,  the  high-priest  and 
premier  of  King  Shapur,^*  mentions  the  Amshaspands  by  name, 
and  exhorts  the  penitent  to  atone  severally  for  the  sins  com- 
mitted against  them.  In  every  case  he  addresses  each  archangel 
in  turn  and  craves  forgiveness  for  any  offence  that  may  have 
been  committed  by  ill-treating  the  earthly  object  over  which  the 
genius  presides.  Offences  against  the  abstract  virtues  which  the 
archangels  impersonate  are  not  mentioned  in  this  treatise,^^  and 
this  fact  tends  decidedly  to  show  that  phase  of  Zoroastrianism 
in  which  abstract  ideas  were  gradually  losing  in  importance,  and 
the  concrete  side  of  the  religion  was  coming  out  with  greater 
prominence. 

This  process  of  materializing  the  original  abstract  concepts 
reaches  its  climax  in  the  eschatological  notions  of  this  period. 
The  several  heavens  and  hells,  as  also  the  bridge  of  judgment 
that  leads  to  them,  are  now  completely  materialized.  All  the 
splendours  of  a  royal  court  with  its  golden  thrones,  rich  carpets, 
and  fine  cushions  are  transferred  to  paradise.     On  the  other 

"  309-379-  A.D.  "  Pt.  8. 


ZOROASTRIANISM  AS  TAUGHT  BY  PAHLAVI  WORKS    i07 

hand,  all  sorts  of  physical  tortures  that  man's  ingenuity  can 
devise  prevail  in  hell. 

Fifteen  hundred  years  separated  Zoroaster  from  the  Sasanian 
period,  and  a  thick  veil  began  to  hide  the  pristine  truth  of  his 
great  religion  from  his  followers. 

The  Sasanian  Church  became  an  arbiter  of  the  faith  of 
Zoroaster.  It  was  through  the  Church  that  the  religious  teach- 
ings filtered  into  the  populace.  During  the  period  of  her  great 
influence,  when  the  State  was  practically  under  her  tutelage,  the 
Church  rendered  a  lasting  service  by  her  attempts  to  reinvigorate 
the  Mazdayasnian  faith.  She  triumphed  when  she  stood  for  the 
spirit  of  the  religion  of  Mazda ;  but  she  failed  when  she  de- 
scended to  rigid  formalism,  stifled  independent  inquiry,  stig- 
matized honest  doubt  as  Ahrimanian,  and  sought  to  overrule 
original  thinking  by  dogmatic  assertions.  Religion  defeats  its 
own  ends  when  it  degenerates  into  dogmatic  theology.  And  it 
was  not  otherwise  in  Persia. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 
THE  ACTIVE  PROPAGANDA  OF  THE  FAITH 

The  Pahlavi  works  on  proselytism.  Zaratusht  first  preached 
his  new  religion  to  the  people  of  Iran  where  he  was  born; 
but  Ormazd  has  commanded  that  the  excellent  religion  should 
be  spread  among  all  races  of  mankind  throughout  the  world.^ 
In  their  commentary  on  the  oft-recurring  Avestan  formula 
fravarane,  the  Pahlavi  versionists  add  an  explanatory  gloss 
that  every  believer  undertakes  to  proclaim  the  Zoroastrian 
religion  of  Ormazd  to  the  entire  world.  It  is  said  that  the  act 
of  the  highest  merit  that  a  non-believer  can  perform  in  his  life 
is  to  renounce  his  religion  and  embrace  the  Mazdayasnian  faith.^ 
The  great  Sasanian  monarch,  Shapur  II,  zealously  worked  for 
the  restoration  and  promulgation  of  the  faith  among  the  un- 
believers with  the  aid  of  his  illustrious  Dastur  Adarbad.^  The 
Dinkart  sanctions  even  the  use  of  force  for  the  conversion  of 
the  aliens.*  A  Pahlavi  treatise  devoted  mostly  to  the  Zoro- 
astrian rituals  attests  the  practice  of  admitting  outsiders  into  the 
Zoroastrian  fold.^  Another  Pahlavi  tractate  treating  of  the 
social  and  legal  practices  of  the  Sasanians  lays  down  that  if  a 
Christian  slave  embraces  the  faith  of  his  Zoroastrian  master,  he 
should  be  given  freedom.® 

An  Armenian  account  of  the  Zoroastrian  propaganda. 
Elisaeus,  bishop  of  the  Amadunians  in  the  fifth  century  a.d.,  in 
his  historical  work  states  that  King  Yazdagard  II  and  his  royal 
court  resorted  to  both  persuasion  and  force  in  their  attempt  to 
-wm  over  the  Christians  of  Armenia  to  Zoroastrianism.'^     The 

*  Dk.,  vol.  10,  bk.  5.  14,  p.  12. 

'  SBE.,  vol.  18,  Appendix,  p.  415. 
'  Dk.,  vol.  9,  p.  579. 

*  SBE.,  vol.  Z7,  bk.  8.  26.  pp.  88,  89. 

'  Nirangisfan,  ed.  Sanjana,  folios  i6a,  17a,  Bombay,  1894. 
'  Madigdn-i  Hazar  Dadistan,  ed.  Modi,  p.  i,  Poona,  1901. 
'  The  History  of  Vartan,  pp.  8,  9,  11,  31,  32,  35,  London,  1830. 

198 


THE  ACTIVE  PROPAGANDA  OF  THE  FAITH  199 

Christian  subjects  of  the  Persian  king  in  Armenia,  we  are  in- 
formed, were  promised  high  positions,  court  distinctions,  royal 
favours,  and  the  remission  of  the  taxes,  if  they  accepted  the 
national  faith  of  Iran.  Mihr  Narsih,  the  premier  of  Yazdagard 
11,^  in  the  proclamation  to  the  Christian  population  of  Armenia 
that  he  issued  at  the  royal  command,  exhorts  them  to  adopt  the 
religion  that  their  sovereign  holds,  and  adds  that  those  that  do 
not  acknowledge  the  Mazdayasnian  faith  are  deaf  and  blind, 
and  are  misled  by  Ahriman.^  Elisaeus  informs  us  that  this 
proselytizing  movement  on  the  part  of  the  Magi  of  Sasanian 
times  was  not  confined  to  Armenia  alone,  but  it  extended  further 
to  Georgia,  Albania,  and  various  other  countries.^" 

Judaism  and  Christianity  penetrate  into  Persia  as  the 
formidable  rivals  of  the  national  faith.  When  the  Zoroastrian 
Church  was  thus  engaged  in  promulgating  the  faith  of  Zoro- 
aster outside  Persia,  her  religious  supremacy  was  challenged  at 
home  by  Judaism,  and  more  aggressively  by  Christianity. 
Ardashir  had  established  Zoroastrianism  as  the  state  religion  of 
Persia,  but  there  were  in  the  empire  colonies  of  people  following 
other  religions.  Iran  had  long  ceased  to  be  a  religious  unit,  and 
the  vast  number  of  Jews,  Christians,  and  others  of  divergent 
faiths  and  creeds  contributed  towards  disunion.  Referring  to  the 
presence  of  the  people  professing  dififerent  religions  in  his  king- 
dom, King  Hormizd  IV  once  remarked  that  his  throne  rested  on 
four  feet ;  ^^  and  troublesome  these  outside  elements  certainly 
proved  to  the  sovereign  occupying  the  throne.  A  fairly  tolerable 
latitude  was  conceded  to  these  adherents  of  the  alien  faiths, 
though  occasional  persecutions  of  them  were  not  unknown. 
These  non-Zoroastrians  frequently  occasioned  heated  polemics 
in  which  virulent  criticism  and  derisive  terms  were  exchanged 
between  the  Zoroastrian  priests  on  the  one  side  and  the  prelates 
of  the  rival  faiths  on  the  other.  Iranian  society  was  often  con- 
vulsed with  the  storm  of  controversy.  The  alien  faiths  were 
branded  as  the  promptings  of  the  Evil  Spirit,  and  were  declared 
to  be  teaching  a  vile  law,  opposed  to  the  pure  law  of  Mazda.^^ 

*  A.D.  438-457- 

°  The  History  of  Vartan,  pp.  11,  12. 
'» Ih.,  p.  26. 

"  Tabari,   tr.   Noldeke,    p.    268;   Wigram,   History   of   the   Assyrian 
Church,  p.  214,  London,  1910. 
"  SIS.  6.  7. 


20O  THE  ACTIVE  PROPAGANDA  OF  THE  FAITH 

The  religions  that  most  struggled  in  this  manner  with  the  national 
faith  during  the  Sasanian  period  were  Judaism  and  Christianity, 
whose  position  in  Persia   we  shall  now  discuss. 

Judaism  in  Persia.  Judea  had  come  under  the  Persian  rule 
at  a  very  early  period.  The  Babylonian  exile  brought  the  Jews 
into  close  touch  with  the  Persians  in  the  sixth  century  B.C.  We 
have  already  referred  to  the  fact  that  the  restoration  of  the 
temple  at  Jerusalem  was  executed  at  the  royal  command  of  the 
Persian  kings  Cyrus  and  Darius.  The  Jews  had  settled  in 
Persia  in  large  numbers  from  very  early  times,  and  had  planted 
their  colonies  all  over  the  country.  They  thrived  peacefully  and 
were  given  privileges  to  manage  their  own  civic  affairs  without 
molestation  from  the  state.  Some  of  the  members  of  the  royal 
house  had  even  married  Jewish  princesses.  King  Yazdagard  I, 
for  example,  had  a  Jewish  consort.^^  But  in  general  those  who 
contracted  matrimonial  alliance  with  Jewish  women  were  dis- 
liked, and  the  Dinkart  inveighs  in  strong  terms  against  the  prac- 
tice of  contracting  such  unions."  In  the  course  of  time,  the 
Persians  and  the  Israelites  seem  to  have  been  sharply  divided  in 
religious  matters.  Disputations  on  questions  of  belief  must  have 
been  frequent.  All  of  the  Pahlavi  works  denounce  Judaism  in 
unsparing  terms.  The  writer  of  the  Dinkart,  for  instance,  avers 
that  Judaism  is  not  a  divine  religion,^^  and  points  to  Zohak, 
the  most  detested  of  men,  as  the  originator  of  the  Jewish  scrip- 
tures,^® branding  elsewhere  the  Jewish  books  as  utterances  of 
the  demons.^^  Seno,  a  Zoroastrian  sage,  is  reported  to  have  said, 
in  his  admonitions  to  the  kings  of  Persia,  that  the  sovereign  of 
the  people  ought  to  keep  aloof  from  the  religion  of  the  Jews,  as 
bringing  devastation  to  the  world.^®  The  progress  of  the  Jewish 
belief  should  be  arrested,  lest  it  spread  its  evil  among  the  faith- 
ful.^^  The  knowledge  of  this  religion  produces  baneful  influences 
upon  the  Mazdayasnians,-°  it  implants  vice,^^  and  aggravates 
immorality.^^  Men  become  of  evil  disposition  through  it.^^  Those 
who  belong  to  this  faith  cannot  be  said  to  be  related  to  the 
Prime  Source.^*     Such  violent  attacks  on  the  beliefs  of  a  race 

"  Shatroiha-i  Airan,  47,  53.  "  Dk.,  vol.  i,  p.  24. 

"  Dk.,  vol.  2,  pp.  97-102.  "  Dk.,  vol.  6,  p.  373- 

"  Dk.,  vol.  4,  p.  211.  "'  Dk.,  vol.  7,  p.  456. 

"  Dk.,  vol.  6,  pp.  372,  373 ;  vol.  7,  p.  439-     "  Dk.,  vol.  6,  pp.  357,  358- 
"  Dk.,  vol.  9,  p.  604.  "  Dk.,  vol.  4,  P-  257- 

"  Dk.,  vol.  5,  P-  310.  "  Dk.,  vol.  4,  P-  267. 


THE  ACTIVE  PROPAGANDA  OF  THE  FAITH  201 

which  had  settled  in  Persia  from  the  very  early  period  of  her 
history  show  us  the  bitterness  of  feeling  that  must  have  prevailed 
between  Zoroastrians  and  Jews.  A  later  writer,  confound- 
ing Kai  Lohrasp  with  Nebuchadnezzar,  states  that  one  of  the 
meritorious  deeds  done  by  Lohrasp  was  that  he  destroyed  Jeru- 
salem and  scattered  the  Jews.^^ 

Christian    propaganda    in    Iran.    Christianity    had    entered 
Persia  during  the  Parthian  period,  and  the  Sasanians  found  the 
creed  of  Christ  more  or  less  current  when  they  established  their 
empire.     Of  all  the  alien  faiths  in  Persia,  Christianity  was  the 
most  aggressive.     The  pertinacious  attempt  of  the  Christians  to 
win  over  converts   to   their  faith   from  the   ruling  nation,   and 
their  reckless  utterances,  often  caused  shedding  of  human  blood. 
An  enthusiastic  bishop  once  regaled  his  congregation  by  saying 
that  the  soul  of  the  king  would,  in  his  future  life,  be  born  in 
hell-fire  with  Satan,  whereas  the  Christians  would  be  translated 
to  heaven,-"  while  another  patriarch  urged  the  Roman  bishops  to 
free  them   from  the  accursed  rule  of  the  Persians.^^     All  this 
helped  to  aggravate  the  ill-feeling  between  the  Zoroastrians  and 
Christians,  and  violent  scenes  ensued.     The  priests  on  both  the 
sides  became  zealots,  and  occasionally   fell  into  the  slough  of 
fanaticism.     Great  was  the  fury  of  religious  rancour  that  pre- 
vailed on  such   occasions.     The   seceders   from    Zoroastrianism 
were  persecuted ;  apostasy  was  made  a  capital  crime  by  the  Zoro- 
astrian  Church,  and  the  renegades  were  put  to  death.     Notwith- 
standing  such   harsh  measures   adopted   by   the   Iranian   clergy, 
numerous  converts  were  made  throughout  the  whole  time  of  the 
Sasanian    rule    from   Zoroastrianism   to    Christianity.      Some  of 
the  greatest  saints  were  won  from  the  Zoroastrian  community. 
Yazdagard  I  and  Hormizd  IV  ascended  the  throne  with  pro- 
clivities for  Christianity,  and  Noshirvan  and  Khusru  Parviz  had 
wedded  Christian  princesses.     Nushzad,  one  of  the  sons  of  the 
great  Sasanian  king  Noshirvan,  was  brought  up  a  Christian."* 
Another  ruler  of  the  House  of  Sasan,  Parviz,  built  a  monastery 
to  please  his  favourite  Christian  wife.^**     Such  royal  examples 

"Mkh.  27.  64,  67;  see  also  Jackson,  Zoroaster,  p.  209,  New  York, 

1899. 

"  Wigram,  History  of  the  Assyrian  Church,  p.  43. 

"lb.,  pp.  151,  152. 

='a-Tabari,  tr.  Noldeke,  pp.  467-474- 

"  Wigram,  History  of  the  Assyrian  Church,  p.  259. 


202  THE  ACTIVE  PROPAGANDA  OF  THE  FAITH 

encouraged  the  Christian  propaganda  in  Iran.  Yazdagard  I,  who 
favoured  the  Christian  cause,  was  hailed  by  the  Christians  as  the 
blessed  king,  but  was  branded  by  his  own  co-religionists  as  the 
wicked  sinner.^^ 


pp. 


"  Shatroiha-i  Airan,  26;  cf.  Wigram,  History  of  the  Assyrian  Church. 
85,  86. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 

SECTS 

Zoroastrianism  split  up  into  a  number  of  sects.  As  indi- 
cated above,  the  Zoroastrian  church  had  lost  all  control  over  its 
adherents.  Sect  after  sect  arose,  each  claiming  to  interpret  the 
religion  of  Zoroaster  in  its  own  light.  The  fact  that  numerous 
sects  flourished  in  Iran  at  this  period  is  proved  by  the  frequent 
allusions  to  them  by  the  Greek,  Syriac,  and  Armenian  writers. 
Unfortunately  the  account  of  those  sects,  which  we  find  in  the 
extant  Zoroastrian  literature,  is  very  meagre.  Several  of  them, 
about  which  we  get  some  information  from  the  non-Zoroastrian 
sources,  are  not  even  mentioned  by  name  in  the  Iranian  works. 
The  Armenian  writers  Eznik  and  Elisaeus,  writing  in  the  fifth 
century  about  the  Zoroastrians  of  their  own  time,  state  that 
they  were  split  into  two  rival  sects.  Damascius,^  on  the 
authority  of  Eudemus,  states  that  sects  flourished  in  Iran  which 
held  Space  as  the  primordial  being  that  created  the  rival  spirits 
of  goodness  and  evil.^  The  most  formidable  of  the  sects,  which 
counted  eminent  persons  among  its  adherents  during  the  Sasanian 
period  and  which  had  a  considerable  following  long  after  the 
disappearance  of  this  last  Zoroastrian  empire,  was  that  of  the 
Zarvanites.  Zarvan,  or  Time,  accompanied  Mithra  in  his  migra- 
tion to  the  far  West  and  was  placed  at  the  pinnacle  of  the 
divine  hierarchy  in  the  Mithraic  cult.^ 

Zarvanites 

Zarvan  according  to  the  Pahlavi  writers.  This  image  of  the 
eternal  duration  of  Time  is  as  cold  and  lifeless  in  the  Pahlavi 
works  as  it  was  in  the  Avestan  texts.     Ormazd  created  it,  and 

*  529   A.D. 

'  De  Primis  Princ,  tr.  by  Chaignet,  Les  Premiers  Principes,  vol.  2, 
p.  129,  Paris,  1898. 

*  Cumont,  The  Mysteries  of  Mithra,  Eng.  tr.  McCormack,  p.  107, 
Chicago,   1903. 

203 


204  SECTS 

with  its  creation  the  entire  existence  came  into  motion,*  or  accord- 
ing to  another  passage,  Boundless  Time  is  eternally  in  Ormazd, 
and  the  very  first  work  of  his  in  creation  appertained  to  Time.^ 
He  brought  into  being  the  earthly  and  heavenly  creatures  through 
his  own  splendour  and  through  the  blessing  of  Time.^  Zarvan, 
or  Time,  is  called  hungerless  and  thirstless,  painless  and  deathless, 
ever-living  and  ever-predominating  over  the  fleeting  things  of  the 
universe.'^  Thus  the  authoritative  Zoroastrian  works  speak  of 
Boundless  Time  in  its  relation  to  Ormazd;  just  as  any  system  of 
philosophy  or  theology  may  speak  of  the  eternity  of  God. 

Zarvan  according  to  the  non-Zoroastrian  writers.  The  ac- 
count that  we  get  of  this  being  from  the  writings  of  the  classical 
and  Armenian  authors  is  different  from  what  we  find  in  the 
Iranian  sources.  The  Armenian  and  Syrian  writers  attack  Zoro- 
astrianism  on  this  point.®  Zarvan,  or  Time,  they  aver,  is  held  by 
the  Persians  to  be  the  generative  principle  of  the  universe. 
Moses  of  Chorene  ^  writes  that  the  Zoroastrians  regarded  Time 
as  the  source  and  father  of  existence.^*'  According  to  Photius  this 
being  was  looked  upon  as  the  ruler  of  the  universe;  he  offered 
sacrifice  in  order  to  beget  Hormizdas,  but  gave  birth  to  Hormiz- 
das  and  Satan." 

The  Armenian  writer  Eznik,  in  the  fifth  century  a.d.,  attests 
the  existence  of  a  sect  that  held  Zarvan,  or  Time,  as  the  sovereign 
lord  and  was  named  after  it.  The  sect,  he  says,  holds  Zarvan  as 
the  generative  principle  of  everything,  and  it  was  from  this 
primordial  principle  that  both  Ormazd  and  Ahriman  have  sprung. 
They  are  its  twin  children.  The  Armenian  historians  credit 
Mihr  Narsih,  the  premier  of  Yazdagard  II,  with  speaking  of 
Zarvan  as  the  prime  originator  of  Ormazd  and  Ahriman.^^  Ac- 
cording to  the  teachings  of  this  sect,  as  portrayed  by  these  writers, 
Zarvan  existed  when  the  earth  was  not,  and  the  heaven  was  not, 
and  brooded  over  the  thought  of  begetting  a  son  who  would 
create  the  universe.     A  doubt  crossed  his  mind,   the  account 

*  Zsp.  I.  24. 

'  Dk.,  vol.  6,  pp.  415,  416. 

•  Mkh.  8.  8. 


'  Mkh.  8.  9. 

*  Noldeke,  Festgruss  mi  Roth,  pp.  34-38,  Stuttgart,  1893. 

'  460  A.D. 

"*  Cf.  Jackson,  Zoroaster,  p.  275. 
**  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia,  apud  Photius,  Bihl.  81. 
Elisaeus,  The  History  of  Vartan,  pp.  11,  12. 


12 


SECTS  205 

claims,  at  the  end  of  a  thousand  years,  lest  his  sacrifice  should 
turn  out  fruitless  and  he  would  not  be  blessed  with  a  child. 
The  sacrifice,  however,  turned  out  fruitful,  but  not  without  mis- 
hap. Zarvan  conceived  two  offspring,  one  as  the  result  of  his 
sacrifice,  the  other  as  the  outcome  of  the  doubt  that  had  dese- 
crated his  mind.  He  resolved  to  give  sovereignty  to  him  who  was 
born  first.  Ormazd,  who  seems  to  have  been  possessed  of  fore- 
knowledge even  before  he  was  thus  born,  read  the  thoughts  of 
his  father  Zarvan,  and  gave  it  out  to  his  comrade  in  the  embryo. 
Ahriman  thereupon  perforated  the  womb  and  came  into  existence 
before  Ormazd,  He  demanded  sovereignty  from  his  begetter, 
Zarvan,  who  disowned  this  ugly,  dark  creature,  and  gave  the 
sceptre  into  the  hands  of  Ormazd,  who  was  resplendent  with 
light.  Ahriman  now  charged  his  father  with  breaking  his  vow. 
In  order  to  free  himself  from  this  accusation,  Zarvan  entered 
into  a  covenant  with  Ahriman,  and  decreed  that  the  empire  of 
the  universe  should  be  conjointly  ceded  to  both  Ormazd  and 
Ahriman  for  nine  thousand  years,  though  the  right  of  priority 
was  ever  to  be  with  the  Good  Spirit.  After  the  expiration  of 
this  period,  Ormazd,  it  was  destined,  should  be  at  liberty  to  deal 
with  his  wicked  brother  as  he  liked.^^ 

This  fantastic  legend  has  left  no  traces  whatever  in  the 
extant  Pahlavi  works.  They  do  not  even  mention  any  sect 
which  had  its  designation  after  Time  itself,  and  we  fail  to  glean 
any  connected  account  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Zarvanites  from 
the  extant  Pahlavi  works.  Be  this  as  it  may,  it  is  certain  that 
a  sect  of  the  Zarvanites,  who  evidently  aimed  at  resolving  the 
Zoroastrian  dualism  into  monotheism  by  the  apotheosis  of  Time, 
did  flourish  for  a  long  time  in  Iran.  Shahristani,  who  wrote  in 
the  early  part  of  the  twelfth  century,  attests,  as  we  shall  see 
later,  that  he  met  the  followers  of  this  sect  in  his  day. 

Fatalists 

Fate  is  the  decree  of  Time.  Time  and  Fate  are  indissolubly 
linked  together.  They  are  often  spoken  of  as  identical  with 
each  other.^*  The  movements  of  the  heavens  regulate  Fate,  and 
the  planets  and  constellations  are  the  arbiters  of  man's  fortune. 

"  Cf.  Eznik,  translated  in  Wilson's  The  Parsi  Religion,  pp.  542,  543, 
Bombay,  1843;  Elisaeus,  The  History  of  Vartan,  pp.  11,  12. 
"  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia,  apud  Photius,  Bibl.  81. 


2o6  SECTS 

The  good  and  evil  stars  determine  man's  lot,  which  is  linked 
with  the  course  of  the  stars.  Every  good  and  evil  event  that 
falls  to  the  lot  of  man  comes  to  pass  through  the  doings  of  the 
twelve  constellations  that  are  ranged  on  the  side  of  Ormazd,  or 
through  the  baneful  influence  of  the  seven  planets,  as  their  special 
antagonists,  arrayed  on  Ahriman's  side.  Both  of  these  agents 
combine  to  administer  the  affairs  of  the  world.^^  Ormazd  allots 
happiness  to  man.  If  man  does  not  receive  it,  it  is  owing  to  the 
extortion  of  these  planets.^^  Like  brigands  and  highwaymen 
they  rob  the  righteous  of  their  good  lot  and  bestow  it  upon  the 
wicked."  Ahriman  has  specially  created  them  for  the  purpose  of 
depriving  man  of  the  happiness  which  the  good  stars  would  be- 
stow upon  man."  Like  witches  they  rush  upon  the  creation  to 
spread  evil,^^  and  pervert  every  creature  that  comes  across  their 
path.20  Fate,  as  the  guardian  of  the  celestial  sphere,  is  therefore 
implored  to  help  mankind  at  all  times  and  in  every  deed.^^  That 
which  is  ordained  to  come  to  pass  will  unfailingly  happen ;  man 
should  not  worry  over  things  over  which  he  has  no  control.  He 
should  learn  to  receive  with  tranquillity  and  calm  whatever  falls 
to  his  lot.'2  Though  nothing  in  the  world  can  rescind  the  in- 
exorable decree  of  Fate,^^  divine  Providence,  moved  by  the  pray- 
ers and  supplications  of  mortals,  can  still,  in  special  cases,  in- 
tervene in  mortal  behalf.  Owing  to  the  counter-movements  of 
the  evil  planets.  Providence  rarely  interferes.^* 

The  inscrutable  power  of  Fate.  Among  the  masses  humility 
is  apt  to  degenerate  into  servility  in  human  affairs,  or  into 
fatalism  in  their  relations  with  the  superhuman  powers.  In 
Persia,  the  dissolution  of  the  great  empire,  and  the  centuries  of 
struggle  and  servitude  that  followed  the  national  catastrophe, 
drove  the  Iranians  to  beheve  in  Fate,  the  inevitable  necessity 
before  which  they  had  to  bow.  The  fatalist  doctrine  pervades 
the  writings  of  the  Pahlavi  period.  As  early  as  the  fifth  century 
the  Armenian  controversialist  Eznik  attacks  this  fatalistic  doc- 
trine of  the  Persians.2*^  Fate,  we  are  told,  is  written  on  man's 
forehead;  he  is   fettered   to  it   from  his  very  birth.^s     Man  is 

"Mkh.  8.  17-19,  21.    ''  SIS.  20.  15;  Mkh.  27.  II. 

"  Mkh.  38.  4,  5-  "  SIS.  20.  17;  Dk.,  vol.  12,  bk.  6.  A.  6,  pp.  36,  37. 

"  Sg.  4.  24-27.  "  Mkh.  24.  3-8. 

"  Mkh.  12.  7-9.  "^  Eznik,  Against  the  Sects,  German  tr.  Schmid, 

"  Sg.  4.  9.  2.  IS,  Vienna,  1900. 

"»  Mkh.  8.  20.  "  Mkh.  24.  6. 

"  SIS.  22.  31. 


SECTS  207 

ignorant  of  the  course  mapped  out  for  him  by  Fate,  which  guides 
the  affairs  of  the  world.^*'  Fate  holds  sovereign  sway  over  every 
one  and  everything.^^  Vazurgmitra  states  that  the  world  shows 
that  fools  prosper  and  the  wise  suffer,  for  which  reason  he  up- 
holds the  view  that  the  ordering  of  results  of  man's  actions  is 
not  in  man's  hands,  but  rests  with  Fate.^® 

Under  the  influence  of  Fate  the  wise  man  fails  of  his  wisdom, 
and  the  fool  shows  intelligence,  the  hero  becomes  a  coward,  and 
the  coward  plays  the  part  of  a  hero,  the  industrious  turn  out  to  be 
indolent,  and  the  indolent  become  industrious.-^  When  Fate  be- 
friends an  indolent,  ignorant,  and  wicked  man,  his  sloth  becomes 
like  unto  diligence,  his  ignorance  unto  knowledge,  and  his  wicked- 
ness unto  righteousness.  On  the  other  hand,  when  Fate  frowns 
upon  a  wise  man  and  a  good,  his  wisdom  is  transformed  to 
foolishness  and  ignorance,  and  his  knowledge,  skill,  and  worthi- 
ness do  not  help  him  in  the  least.^''  Life,  wife,  and  child,  power 
or  fortune  alike,  come  all  through  Fate.^^ 

How  far  Fate  affects  man's  exertions.  Replying  to  the 
query  whether  man  gets  various  things  through  Fate  or  through 
his  own  exertion,  Vazurgmitra,  the  talented  premier  of  Noshir- 
van,  states  that  both  of  these  are  as  closely  linked  together  as  are 
man's  body  and  life.  As  the  body  falls  a  ruined  tabernacle  of 
clay  when  life  has  quitted  it,  and  as  life  without  the  body  is  an 
intangible  wind,  so  are  Fate  and  exertion  indissolubly  united  with 
each  other.^2  Fate  is  the  efficient  cause,  and  exertion  is  the 
means  through  which  man  attains  to  everything.^^  It  is  true  that 
exertion  is  of  no  avail  when  Fate  has  ordained  otherwise.  Man 
may  toil,  and  yet  may  not  reap  the  fruit  of  his  labour.  But  then, 
man's  exertion  in  good  works,  even  if  not  rewarded  with  fruitful 
results  in  this  world,  will  reap  a  benefit  in  the  next  world  through 
the  angels.  Man,  therefore,  has  to  depend  upon  the  doings  of 
Fate  for  the  good  of  this  world,  but  upon  his  own  actions  for 
the  spiritual  goods  to  be  enjoyed  in  the  world  hereafter.^* 


'*  Mkh.  27.  10. 
"  Mkh.  47-  7- 

28 


Ibn  Isfandiyar,  History  of  Tabaristan,  tr.  Browne,  pp.  85,  86,  Lop- 
don,  1905. 

"  Mkh.  23.  5-7. 

""  Mkh.  51.  5-7. 

"  Dd.  71.  3;  Dk.,  vol.  12,  bk.  6.  D.  i,  p.  75;  Jamaspi,  p.  122. 

"  Gs.  56. 

"  Gs.  57. 

•*  Phi.  Vd.  5.  8 ;  Mkh.  22.  4-6. 


2o8  SECTS 

Through  Fate  man  performs  meritorious  deeds.^^  Man,  it  is 
true,  is  dependent  upon  the  decree  of  Fate  as  regards  his  earthly 
possessions,  but  it  is  left  only  to  his  individual  exertion  whether 
he  shall  reap  the  reward  of  righteousness  or  the  retribution  of 
wickedness. ^^  Tansar,  in  his  letter  to  Jasnaf,  the  king  of  Tabar- 
istan,  writes  that  it  is  wrong  to  deny  the  sovereign  sway  of  Fate 
over  man's  life,  but  it  is  equally  wrong  to  give  up  personal  effort 
under  the  exaggerated  idea  of  the  influence  of  Fate.  The  wise, 
he  continues,  should  take  the  middle  course,  for  Fate  and  man's 
free  will  are  like  two  loads  on  the  back  of  an  animal.  If  either 
is  heavier  than  the  other,  both  fall  down.^^ 

Despite  such  prominence  given  to  the  workings  of  Fate  by 
the  Pahlavi  writers,  fatalism  never  came  to  be  employed  among 
the  Zoroastrians  as  an  excuse  for  cloaking  man's  indolence.  It 
is  idle  persons,  we  are  told,  that  blame  Fate.^^  The  ever  active 
spirit  of  Zoroastrianism  militated  against  fatalism,  and  saved  the 
nation  from  its  baneful  influences. 

"  Dk.,  vol.  9,  p.  585. 

"  Dd.  71-  3- 

"  Darmesteter,  Lettre  de  Tansar  au  roi  de  Tabaristan,  in  JA.,  1894, 

I.  p.  553- 

"  AnAtM.,  119. 


CHAPTER  XXV 

HERESIES 

Heretics  detested  more  than  the  demon-worshippers. 
Heresy  was  one  of  the  greatest  crimes  of  which  a  Zoroastrian 
could  be  guihy  according  to  the  ancient  texts.  It  was  a  criminal 
offence  punishable  by  law.  The  severity  of  the  law,  however, 
was  considerably  modified  during  the  Sasanian  period,  even 
though  the  works  written  during  this  period  do  not  show  any 
considerable  advance  in  real  religious  toleration.  In  his  letter 
to  the  king  of  Tabaristan,  Tansar  states  that,  in  the  statutes 
which  Ardashir  had  framed,  he  had  greatly  modified  the  rigour 
of  the  law;  for,  whereas  formerly  a  heretic  was  instantly 
killed,  Tansar's  royal  master  had  ordered  that  such  a  sinner 
should  be  imprisoned  for  one  year,  and  that  the  religion  of 
Ormazd  should  be  preached  to  him  daily  during  that  period  in 
order  to  reclaim  him  from  heresy.  If  he  still  persisted  obstinately 
in  his  heretical  belief,  capital  punishment  was  to  be  inflicted 
upon  him  as  a  last  resort.^  Any  one  also  who  did  not  give 
assent  to  the  dogmatic  teachings  of  the  Zoroastrian  creed,  or 
expounded  views  that  were  at  variance  with  those  sanctioned 
by  her  authority,  incurred  the  odium  of  heresy,  and  came  under 
the  ban  of  ecclesiastical  excommunication.  The  Church  forbade 
with  proscription  any  criticism  of  its  authoritative  canon;  the 
ecclesiastical  doctrine  was  fixed,  and  to  think  otherwise  was 
heresy.  Giving  the  definition  of  a  heretic,  the  Dinkart  states 
that  whosoever  teaches,  speaks,  or  acts  respecting  the  beliefs 
and  practices  of  the  national  faith  differently  from  that  which  the 
ancients  have  done  is  a  heretic.--^  Heretics  are  of  three  kinds : 
the  deceiver,  deceived,  and  the  opinionated.*  All  of  these  mis- 
represent the  teachings  of  the  elders,  and  pervert  the  sacred  writ- 

'  Darmesteter,  Lettre  de  Tansar  au  roi  de  Tabaristan,  in  JA.,   1894, 

I.  p.  524- 

'-'  Vol.  12,  bk.  6.  c.  26,  p.  58. 

*  Dk.,  vol.  12,  bk.  6.  c.  83,  p.  74. 

209 


210  HERESIES 

ings,^  as  they  declaim  against  the  estabHshed  teachings.®  They 
promote,  in  opposition  to  Ormazd,  the  wicked  religion  of  Ahri- 
man/  The  heretic  is  possessed  by  the  Evil  Spirit.®  He  is  the  dis- 
ciple of  the  demon  of  heresy.^  The  demons  lodge  in  his  body ;  ^° 
he  is,  in  fact,  a  demon  in  human  form.^^  Even  during  his  life- 
time, his  body  resembles  a  corpse  and  the  faithful  should  refrain 
from  coming  in  contact  with  him,  lest  they  themselves  become 
defiled.^^  Bad  as  is  his  lot  in  this  world,  it  is  worse  in  the  world 
to  come.  His  soul  is  doomed  to  everlasting  torture.  It  becomes 
a  darting  snake,  and  there  is  no  resurrection  for  it.^^  For  these 
reasons,  men  are  warned  to  guard  themselves  from  anything 
that  savours  of  heresy.^*  The  Pahlavi  writers,  in  every  treatise, 
are  unsparing  in  their  denunciation  of  heretics,  arraigning  them 
for  deception,  lying,  and  perversion.  The  heretic  Gurgi  is  called 
a  disreputable  impostor,  full  of  avarice,  and  worthy  of  every 
opprobrium. ^^  In  a  similar  manner,  the  Pahlavi  works  swarm 
with  invectives  against  Mani,  as  arch-heretic  in  the  third  century 
A.D.,  to  whose  account  we  now  turn. 

Mani 

The  arch-heretic  of  the  Sasanian  period.  This  remarkable 
man  was  born  in  the  reign  of  Ardavan,  the  last  of  the  Parthian 
kings.  He  received  his  first  revelation  at  the  age  of  thirteen, 
and  ultimately  claimed  to  be  a  prophet,  the  very  seal  or  the  last 
messenger  of  God.^®  He  began  his  propaganda  under  Ardashir, 
but  worked  with  greater  vigour  under  Shapur  I,  who  embraced 
his  faith.^^  Manichaeism  flourished  with  varied  success  side  by 
side  with  the  state  religion  until  the  time  when  Bahram  I  ascended 

"  Dk.,  vol.  I,  p.  3. 

«  Dk.,  vol.  I,  p.  5- 

'  Dk.,  SBE.,  vol.  37,  bk.  9.  53-  2,  p.  328. 

,«  Dk.,  vol.  7,  p.  474. 

!»  Phi.  Ys.  44.  14. 

^^  Phi.  Ys.  47.  4- 

"  Dk.,  vol.  I,  p.  IS- 

"  Dk.,  vol.  I,  p.  31. 

"  SIS.  17.  7. 

"  Dk.,  vol.  II,  bk.  6.  128,  p.  35. 

"  Dk.,  vol.  5,  p.  320. 

"  Al-Biruni,  Chronology  of  Ancient  Nations,  tr.  Sachau,  pp.  189,  190. 
London,  1879;  Mirkhond,  Rauzat-us  Safa,  tr.  Rehatsek.  part  i,  vol.  2.  p. 
336,  London,  1892. 

"  Mirkhond,  pp.  333,  336 ;  al-Ya'qubi,  quoted  by  Browne,  Literary 
History  of  Persia,  i.  156,  New  York,  1902. 


HERESIES  211 

the  throne.  The  teachings  of  Mani  acquired  a  strong  hold  over 
the  minds  of  many,  and  threatened  to  be  a  powerful  rival  of  the 
ancient  faith.  The  national  spirit  rebelled  against  the  encroach- 
ment of  the  new  cult,  and  the  king  strove  to  extinguish  the 
heresy  by  the  exercise  of  a  firm  hand.  He  confronted  Mani  with 
his  Dastur,  who  threw  him  a  challenge  that  both  of  them  should 
pour  molten  lead  on  their  bellies,  and  whosoever  came  out  un- 
hurt should  be  declared  to  be  in  the  right.  This  Mani  did  not 
accept.  Consequently  in  a.d.  276-7  he  was  flayed  to  death  and 
his  body  was  stuffed  with  straw.^^  With  the  removal  of  Mani 
from  the  field  of  activity,  the  Manichaean  propaganda  entered 
upon  its  dissolution  in  Iran,  but  the  seed  of  the  new  faith  he  had 
sown  did  not  remain  unfruitful.  Despite  the  heavy  slaughter  of 
the  Manichaeans,  the  new  cult  spread  from  the  home  of  its 
origin  to  the  far  East,  reaching  even  as  far  as  China,  and  pene- 
trated far  into  the  West  in  the  fourth  century,  where  for  some 
time  it  contested  supremacy  with  Christianity,  somewhat  as 
Persian  Mithraism  had  done  before  it. 

The  Pahlavi  writers  vehemently  attack  Mani  and  his  follow- 
ers. He  is  dubbed  a  druj  ^^  of  evil  origin,^°  and  his  followers  are 
branded  as  deceivers,  empty-skulled  persons  that  practised  witch- 
craft and  deceitfulness,  and  taught  folly  in  the  way  of  secret 
societies ;  ^^  they  are  denounced  as  deluding  the  uninformed  and 
unintelligent,  and  as  capturing  the  men  of  little  knowledge  in  their 
esoteric  circle.^- 

Mani's  eclectic  system.  Mani  based  his  new  religion  on 
materials  drawn  from  Zoroastrianism,  Buddhism,  Christianity,  and 
Syrian  Gnosticism.  His  new  religion  differed  in  its  cardinal  prin- 
ciples from  Zoroastrianism.  Some  of  the  more  prominent  feat- 
ures of  Manichaeism,  which  are  fundamentally  foreign  to  the 
spirit  of  Zoroastrianism,  are  the  ascetic  principles  of  self-morti- 
fication, celibacy,  fasting,  and  the  vow  of  poverty.  Each  of  these 
in  turn  we  shall  examine  from  the  point  of  view  of  Zoroastrian- 
ism, and  seek  at  the  same  time  to  determine  the  basic  difference 
between  the  two  theories  of  life. 

^*  Al-Biruni,  p.  191 ;  al-Ya'qubi,  cited  by  Browne,  Literary  History 
of  Persia,  1.  157;  Mirkhond,  p.  2>Z7 ',  Tabari,  translated  by  Noldeke, 
Geschichte  der  Perser  und  Araher,  p.  47,  Leyden,   1879. 

"  Dk.,  vol.  5,  pp.  315-317. 

"Dk.,  vol.  4,  p.  211. 

"  Sg.  ID.  59,  60. 

"  Sg.  10.  75-77. 


212  HERESIES 

Mani  holds  matter  to  be  the  root  of  evil,  hence  self-mor- 
tification of  the  body  is  a  virtue  in  his  system.  The  body  as 
composed  of  matter,  according  to  this  thinker,  is  inherently 
evil.  On  this  very  ground  he  denies  the  final  resurrection.^^ 
Manichaeism  brands  all  bodily  desires  as  evil  and  legislates  for 
their  stifling  and  killing.  Since  all  evil  has  its  root  in  the  body, 
salvation  is  possible  only  through  the  extirpation  of  bodily  de- 
sires. Mani's  system  of  religion  becomes  quietistic,  ascetic,  and 
inculcates  only  passive  virtues.  He  taught  his  followers  to 
abhor  all  natural  pleasures  and  abandon  them.  He  strove  to  ex- 
tinguish the  fire  of  the  bodily  desires.  The  devout  was  to  begin 
by  abstaining  from  every  comfort  and  from  every  amusement. 
In  spite  of  this,  temptations  assail  him  on  all  sides,  so  long  as 
he  lives  in  the  midst  of  earthly  attachments.  To  adopt  a  practical 
image,  the  centipede  does  not  lose  much  if  one  of  its  legs  is 
broken;  so  man  is  not  safe  when  he  succeeds  in  eradicating  one 
desire,  for  another  takes  its  place  and  haunts  him  in  the  quiet 
moments,  even  when  the  ardent  longing  of  communing  with  the 
divine  consumes  him.  He  is  still  overcome  by  passion,  by  the 
desire  of  wife  and  child,  of  hearth  and  home.  He  feels  that  he 
cannot  liberate  himself  from  the  unbearable  yoke  of  these  strong 
passions,  unless  he  flees  from  the  world  to  some  solitary  place 
where  joys  and  sorrows  cannot  reach  him.  Life,  such  a  one 
thinks,  is  a  fleeting  illusion.  It  cannot  give  him  enduring  calm. 
Accordingly,  he  breaks  his  family  ties,  shuns  society,  becomes 
a  hermit,  and  lives  a  life  of  complete  quiescence.  He  courts 
negation. 

Zoroastrianism  stands  for  controlling  and  regulating 
bodily  desires,  but  not  for  suppressing  and  killing  them.  The 
antithesis  of  body  and  soul,  flesh  and  spirit,  is  not  unknown  to 
the  Pahlavi  writers.  But  the  body  in  itself  is  not  evil.  Accord- 
ing to  Zoroastrianism,  matter  is  not  inherently  evil,  and  life  in 
the  flesh  is  not  necessarily  death  in  the  spirit.  Zarathushtra 
legislates  for  the  material  as  well  as  the  spiritual  side  of  our 
nature.  A  healthy  body  alone  can  nurture  a  healthy  mind,  and 
it  is  through  the  agency  of  these  two  prime  factors  that  the 
spirit  can  work  out  her  destiny.  Man  can  act  righteousness  and 
assail  wickedness  only  with  a  sound  body.  The  faithful  craves 
for  a  long  life  in  the  body  in  this  world,  before  he  is  allotted  an 

"  Sg.  i6.  so. 


HERESIES  213 

eternal  life  of  spirit  in  heaven.  Bodily  life  in  this  world  is  sacred, 
it  is  a  pledge ;  Ormazd  has  confided  this  most  precious  of  his  gifts 
to  man  that  he  may  join  with  his  Heavenly  Father  in  securing 
the  ultimate  triumph  of  good  over  evil  and  thus  usher  the  divine 
Kingdom  of  Righteousness  into  the  world.  The  soul  rules  over 
the  body  as  a  householder  rules  over  a  family  or  a  rider  rides 
his  horse.^^  It  is  the  stubborn  slave  of  the  soul,  and  with  the 
exercise  of  self-control  it  is  to  be  converted  into  an  obedient 
servant  always  ready  to  carry  out  the  mandates  of  its  master.^^ 
The  body  is  an  indispensable  vehicle  of  the  soul  and  the  saintly 
soul  drives  in  it  on  the  path  of  Righteousness.  It  is  only  in  the 
case  of  the  wicked,  in  whom  the  flesh  gains  victory  over  the 
spirit,  that  it  becomes  a  heavy  burden,  its  wheels  refuse  to  move, 
sticking  in  the  quagmire  of  sin.  But  then  the  fault  Hes  with 
the  driver.  It  is  only  when  the  individual  lives  solely  for  the 
body,  feasts  his  lustful  eyes  on  the  vices  of  the  flesh,  and  is  a 
willing  slave  to  the  bodily  passions,  that  the  body  turns  out  to 
be  the  grave  of  the  soul.^^  Whoso  lives  in  this  world  for  the 
body  alone  and  is  immersed  in  bodily  pleasures,  loses  in  spirit 
in  the  next  world,  but  whoso  works  for  the  soul,  makes  the 
spiritual  existence  more  his  own.^^  Just  as  a  person  going  with- 
out shoes  on  a  road  infested  with  serpents  and  scorpions  is  con- 
stantly on  guard  lest  the  noxious  creatures  bite  him,  so  a  man 
should  always  beware  of  his  bodily  passions.^^  The  great 
Sasanian  pontiff  Adarbad  said  that  whenever  any  harm  befell 
his  body,  he  took  consolation  that  it  did  not  affect  his  soul,  which 
was  of  greater  significance.^^  Whosoever  lives  in  this  world  with 
a  view  to  the  betterment  of  his  soul,  reaps  the  future  reward, 
but  whoso  lives  exclusively  for  the  body,  sees  his  body  ultimately 
crumbling  into  dust  with  no  hopes  for  the  welfare  of  the  spiritual 
existence.^"  The  wicked  conducts  his  soul  after  the  bodily  desires, 
but  the  righteous  man  should  regulate  his  body  in  conformity 
with  the  higher  desires  of  the  soul.^^  The  body  is  the  halter  to 
the  soul,  and  the  faithful  one  is  reminded  that  he  should  so  act  in 
the  world  that  neither  the  soul  nor  the  body  suffers  for  the 
other,  but  if  that  is  not  possible,  he  should  prefer  the  soul  to  the 


"  Dk.,  vol.  6,  pp.  353,  380,  381.  "  Dk.,  vol.  12,  bk.  6.  B.  47,  pp.  49,  50. 

"  Dk.,  vol.  I,  p.  56.  "  Dk.,  vol.  12,  bk.  6.  A.  5,  pp.  35,  36. 

"  Dk.,  vol.  8,  p.  469.  '"  SIS.  20.  10. 

"  Dk.,  vol.  12,  bk.  6.  A.  2,  p.  33-  "  Dk.,  vol.  12,  bk.  6.  285,  p.  8. 


214  HERESIES 

body  and  be  prepared  to  sacrifice  it  for  the  good  of  the  soul.'* 
The  soul  profits  when  the  inordinate  bodily  pleasures  are  fore- 
gone.^^  The  man  who  is  prepared  to  dedicate  his  body  for  the 
sake  of  his  soul  or  religion  practises  true  generosity.^*  Though 
the  body  is  the  bane  of  the  spirit,  it  is  not  branded  as  inherently 
evil.  Man  may  work  with  the  body,  yet  he  may  five  for  the 
soul.  Discipline  rather  than  austerity  is  the  Zoroastrian  watch- 
word. Self-mortification  does  not  form  part  of  the  Zoroastrian 
theology.  With  due  self-control  the  devout  has  to  conquer  the 
flesh  in  order  to  be  victor  in  spirit ;  he  has  to  subdue  his  bodily 
nature,  but  not  to  suppress  it.  The  body  is  not  to  be  reduced 
to  a  skeleton.  Zoroastrianism  demands  a  sound  and  a  strong  body 
to  enable  man  to  effectively  combat  the  hydra  of  evil  in  this  world. 
Uncleanliness  of  body  is  one  of  the  ascetic  virtues.  It  is  repug- 
nant to  the  spirit  of  Zoroastrianism,  which  stands  for  bodily 
purity.  Purity  of  body  contributes  to  purity  of  spirit.  Bodily 
uncleanliness  means  spiritual  pollution,  and  wantonly  weakening 
the  body  is  a  sin.  Monastic  life  is  unknown  to  the  Zoroastrians 
of  all  periods.  Christianity  had  entered  Iran  under  the  Parthian 
rule,  and  monasteries  of  both  the  sexes  flourished  in  the  Assyrian 
Church  during  the  Sasanian  period.  Far  from  exerting  any 
influence  upon  the  Zoroastrians,  they  were  looked  upon  with 
great  aversion  by  them. 

Celibacy,  a  virtue  with  Mani,  a  vice  with  Zoroaster.  Mani- 
chaeism  extols  celibacy  as  the  greatest  virtue.  For  those  initiated 
in  the  higher  orders  Mani  advocated  celibacy.  When  the  ardent 
longing  for  the  love  of  God  swallows  up  all  other  desires  and  be- 
comes the  controlling  factor  of  the  devout,  he  is  enjoined  to  take 
a  vow  of  continence.  He  should  not  enter  into  matrimonial 
alliance  if  he  desires  to  serve  God  whole-heartedly.  Marriage 
is  declared  incompatible  with  sanctity ;  it  is  accounted  impure  and 
defiling.  Mani  forbids  sexual  intercourse  as  the  worst  type  of 
uncleanliness.^^  Virginity  is  the  highest  form  of  life.  Body  being 
the  formation  of  Ahriman,  the  propagation  of  lineage  and  the 
breeding  of  families  are  evil.^*'  Marriage  prolongs  the  life  of 
mankind,  and  so  retards  the  union  of  the  human  species  with  God. 

All  this  is  in  direct  antagonism  to  the  teachings  of  Zoroaster. 

"  Dk.,  vol.  10,  bk.  6.  25,  p.  8.  "  Al-Biruni,  p.  190. 

^^  Dk.,  vol.   II,  bk.  6.  89,  p.  2.  ^°  Sg.  16.  40,  41. 

"Dk.,  vol.  II,  bk.  6.  91,  p.  5. 


HERESIES  215 

In  no  period  of  the  history  of  his  rehgion  was  celibacy  ever  held 
a  virtue.    Those  practising  it  were  not  considered  more  holy  and 
held  in  higher  reverence,  as  among  the  Manichaeans,  but  their 
action  was  strongly  reprehended.     Even  the  priests  were  not  to 
be  celibates,  for  it  is  a  cardinal  point  of  the  faith  of  every  true 
Zoroastrian  that  he  shall  marry  and  rear  a  family."     Ormazd 
prefers  the  man  who  lives  a  life  of  marital  happiness  to  the  one 
who  lives  in  continence. ^^    Whoso  does  not  marry  and  propagate 
lineage  hinders  the  work  of  Renovation,  and  is  wicked."^     Mar- 
riage is  doubly  an  obligation,  being  a  religious  duty  to  the  Church, 
a  civic  duty  to  the  State.     Hence  both  the  Church  and  the  State 
encouraged  married  life  in  Iran.     It  is  considered  a  highly  meri- 
torious   form    of    charity    to    help    a    poor    man    to    marry.*° 
Herodotus  remarks  that  the  Persian  kings  gave  prizes  to  those 
who  were  blessed  with  many  children.*^    The  Zoroastrian  works 
of  all  periods  exhort  the  faithful  to  enter  into  matrimony.     Mar 
Shiman,  the  chief  bishop  of  the  Christian  settlers  in  Iran,  was 
accused  by  the  Mobads  before  Shapur  II  to  the  effect  that  he 
and  his  clergy  were  teaching  men  to  refrain  from  marriage  and 
the  procreation  of  children.*-    King  Yazdagard  II  saw  great  dan- 
ger to  the  State  in  the  spread  of  such  doctrines  among  the  masses. 
If  they  caught  the  contagion,  says  his   royal  edict,  the  world 
would  soon  come  to  an  end.*^  Such  were  the  strong  feelings 
against  any  form  of  celibacy  that  prevailed  at  all  times  in  Persia ; 
and  even  in  Manx's  system  the  stringency  was  generally  relaxed 
in  case  of  the  masses.     Marriage  was  tolerated  as  a  source  of 
relief  to  their  unrestrained  sexual  appetites.     It  was  a  necessary 
evil  in  their  case.     But  in  the  case  of  the  clergy  and  of  other 
righteous  persons  who  aimed  at  higher  life,  it  was  obligatory  that 
they  should  be  celibates.    Zoroastrianism  legislates  for  the  clergy 
and  the  laity  alike.     In  Mani's  system  marriage  was  a  vice  for 
the  priest,  a  reluctant  concession  to  the  layman.    According  to  the 
religion  of  Zoroaster,  it  is  neither  the  one  nor  the  other;  it  is  a 
positive   virtue    for   both.      Sacerdotal   piety   does   not  tend   to 
celibacy  in  Iran.     It  is  disapproved  for  all  and  under  all  circum- 

"  Dk.,  vol.  9,  pp.  609,  634,  637,  639;  Gs.  123,  155. 

''  vd.  4.  47. 

="  Dk.,  vol.  II,  bk.  6.  92,  pp.  6,  7. 

"  Vd.  4-  44- 

"  I.  136. 

"  Wigram,  History  of  the  Assyrian  Church,  p.  64,  London,  1910. 

*'  Elisaeus,  History  of  Vartan,  p.  13. 


2i6  HERESIES 

stances.  In  no  stage  of  the  individual's  moral  and  spiritual  de- 
velopment is  marriage  ever  considered  as  incompatible  with 
saintliness. 

Fasting  recommended  by  Manichaeism,  condemned  by 
Zoroastrianism.  Mani  advocated  the  abstinence  from  food  as  a 
means  of  expiation  for  sin.**  Nearly  a  quarter  of  the  year  was 
set  apart  by  him  as  the  period  of  fast.  If  there  is  one  thing 
more  than  another  which  Zoroaster  teaches,  it  is  that  man  shall 
never  serve  Ormazd  by  fasting  and  austerities,  but  only  by  pray- 
ers and  work.  Far  from  recommending  these  ascetic  practices  as 
virtues,  he  prohibits  them  as  sins.  Fasting  formed  no  part  of  the 
religion  of  ancient  Iran  at  any  period  of  her  history.  It  is  strongly 
reprobated  in  the  works  of  all  periods.  Fasting  is  a  sin,  and  the 
only  fast  that  the  faithful  are  exhorted  to  keep  is  the  fast  from 
sin.*^  The  wilful  abstinence  from  food  is  a  deliberate  disregard 
of  the  bounty  of  Ormazd.  In  his  exaggerated  idea  of  the  need 
of  fasting,  the  ascetic  weakens  his  body,  and  practically  starves 
himself  to  death  by  a  rigorous  system  of  fasts.  Zoroastrianism 
enjoins  that  man  should  take  sufficient  food  to  keep  his  body 
strong  and  active,  and  not  make  it  languid  by  withholding  tne 
due  share  of  food  from  it.  With  a  feeble  body  man  could  not 
work  strenuously  for  the  furtherance  of  the  world  of  righteous- 
ness, and  carry  on  a  vigorous  warfare  against  the  world  of  wicked- 
ness; and  this,  according  to  the  Zoroastrian  behef,  is  the  chief 
object  of  man's  life  on  earth. 

Mani's  doctrine  of  poverty  in  the  light  of  Zoroastrianism. 
The  saint  in  Mani's  system  holds  earthly  things  as  so  many  dis- 
tractions. The  things  of  sense  are  impure.  He  tries  to  avoid 
them,  and  gradually  gives  them  up  one  by  one.  He  makes  a 
vow  of  poverty.  Wealth  is  looked  upon  as  a  source  of  tempta- 
tion. Material  commodities  are  regarded  as  satisfying  the  lower 
nature  of  man.  The  accumulation  of  property  beyond  that  which 
would  enable  him  to  purchase  food  for  one  day  or  clothing  for 
one  year  is  forbidden.*®  The  true  hermit  renounces  all  personal 
effort,  does  not  think  of  providing  for  the  morrow,  and  with 
passive  resignation  looks  to  God  for  what  he  may  send  to  him. 
All  ascetic  orders  where  the  vow  of  poverty  is  overemphasized 
give  rise  to  mendicants  and  beggars  living  upon  the  alms  of 
others.     Among  other  evils  mendicancy  brings  a  drain  on  the 

"  Al-Biruni,  p.  190.  "  Sd.  83.  1-6.  "  Al-Biruni.  p.  190. 


HERESIES  217 

resources  of  a  society.  For  that  reason  it  is  not  consecrated  in 
Zoroastrianism.  In  fact  it  was  not  recognized  at  any  period  in 
the  reHgious  history  of  Iran.  It  is  not  a  sin  to  acquire  riches  and 
accumulate  property.  The  sin  originates  with  the  improper  use 
of  one's  possessions,  and  the  faithful  are  expressly  warned  not 
to  lust  for  and  indulge  exclusively  in  the  accumulation  of  the 
material  wealth  at  the  expense  of  the  spiritual.*^  This  reprimand 
serves  as  a  corrective  to  the  unbridled  desire  to  covet  earthly 
riches.*^  Wealth  of  the  spirit  is  undoubtedly  superior  to  that  of 
the  body.  As  regards  the  use  of  the  wealth  of  this  world  man 
should  work  as  if  he  were  going  to  live  a  life  of  a  thousand 
years,  and  as  if  what  he  failed  to  do  to-day  he  could  easily  per- 
form the  next  day.  But  when  it  comes  to  the  question  of  the 
spiritual  riches,  he  should  act  with  the  fear  that  he  might  perhaps 
live  only  a  day  more  in  this  world,  and  that  if  he  postponed  to-day's 
good  work  till  to-morrow,  death  might  overtake  him  and  prevent 
him  from  accomplishing  it.*^  One  should  choose  rather  to  be  poor 
for  the  spirit  than  to  be  rich  without  it.  Losing  the  spirit  for 
the  sake  of  earthly  riches  is  wrong.  But  accumulating  earthly 
riches  with  upright  means  and  expending  them  for  the  welfare  of 
the  spirit  is  meritorious.  Srosh  helps  the  man  who  has  riches 
and  plenty,  and  who,  far  from  yielding  to  temptations,  makes 
good  use  of  his  fortune.^°  Wealth  helps  a  righteous  man  to  per- 
form meritorious  deeds,"  whereas  grinding  poverty  at  times 
occasions  wickedness."  If  a  man  craves  for  a  vast  fortune  with 
a  firm  resolve  to  spend  it  for  charitable  purposes,  his  desire  is 
laudable.^^  It  is  praiseworthy  that  man  should  spend  his  earthly 
riches  for  his  spiritual  welfare.^*  Wealth  is  given  to  man  not  to 
squander  on  himself,  but  to  help  the  poor  and  the  needy,  and 
assuage  the  wrongs  of  suffering  humanity.^^  When  misused, 
wealth  becomes  a  halter  to  the  body,  and  the  wise  one  should 
sacrifice  it,  for  the  good  of  his  soul.^^     Man  should  not  be  in- 

"  Dk.,  vol.  3,  P-  129;  vol.  5,  PP-  314,  315;  vol.  II,  bk.  6.  149,  150, 

P-  49- 

*^  Dk.,  vol.  13,  bk.  6.  E.  16,  pp.  4,  5- 

"Dk,  vol.  II,  bk.  6.  151,  p.  49. 

"'  Dk.,  vol.  II,  bk.  6.  90,  pp.  4,  5- 

"  Dk.,  vol.  4,  P-  192. 

"  Dk.,  vol.  12,  bk.  6.  283,  p.  8. 

"  Dk.,  vol.  12,  bk.  6.  310,  pp.  25,  26. 

"  Dk.,  vol.  6,  p.  418. 

Dk.,  vol.  3,  P-  142;  AnAtM.  47. 

Dk.,  vol.  10,  bk.  6.  26,  pp.  8,  9. 


64 


2i8  HERESIES 

toxicated  with  pride  when  he  is  in  the  plenitude  of  his  riches  and 
at  the  height  of  fortune,  and  must  not  hate  the  poor,  for  his 
fortune  might  leave  him  at  any  moment  and  place  him  in  the 
class  of  the  paupers.^^  He  is  reminded  that  howsoever  rich  he 
grows,  his  wealth  could  never  exceed  that  of  Jamshid.  And 
yet  that  great  king  found  his  wealth  deserting  him  when  his  end 
approached.^^  The  kingdoms  of  the  kings  with  all  their  fabulous 
fortunes  are  not  everlasting.^^  One  should  not  be  proud  of  his 
fortune.  It  is  but  vanity;  it  is  as  fleeting  and  transient  as  a 
dream.^°  It  changes  its  masters  like  a  bird  that  flies  from  one 
tree  to  another,  only  to  leave  that  in  turn  for  still  another.''^ 
At  death  wealth  and  property  do  not  accompany  the  owner,  but 
go  into  others'  possession.^^  None  should  be  proud  of  his  pos- 
sessions and  count  upon  them  as  exclusively  his  own,  for  at  the 
time  of  death  even  the  palaces  and  treasures  are  of  no  avail,  and 
the  owner  does  not  take  them  with  him  on  his  journey  heaven- 
ward.®^ A  wealthy  man  rolling  in  riches  is  healthy  in  the  morn- 
ing, becomes  ill  at  noon,  and  quietly  passes  from  this  world 
before  night;  his  fortune  does  not  help  him  to  avert  this 
calamity.*^*  Wealth  and  rank  are  the  accidents  of  life,  they  do 
not  constitute  the  real  greatness  of  man.  Righteousness  alone  is 
the  true  riches  and  man  cannot  get  it  in  the  next  world  on 
loan,®^ 


Mazdak 

The  economic  basis  of  his  religious  reform.  The  second 
great  heretic  of  this  period  who  had  a  considerable  following 
was  a  pious  Mobad  named  Mazdak,  son  of  Bamdat.  He  is 
called  the  accursed  heterodox  who  observes  fasts,®®  who  appeared 
to  cause  disturbance  among  the  faithful.®^  He  was  contemporary 
with  Kobad.®^  Mazdak  agreed  with  the  fundamental  doctrine 
of  Zoroastrianism  in  respect  to  the  indelible  antithesis  between 
the  two  principles,  Light  and  Darkness,  or  Ormazd  and  Ahri- 


ss 


'  AnAtM.  57.  "  Gs.  169. 

"  Dk.,  vol.  II,  bk.  6.  152,  pp.  49,  50.     '^Dk.,  vol.  11,  bk.  6.  200,  pp.  71,  72. 
"Gs.  I.  "AnKhK.  5. 

"  Gs.  58.  "  BYt.  2.  21 ;  Phi.  Vd.  4.  49. 

"AnAtM.  88.  "'BYt.  i.  6. 

"AnAtM.   145.  "488-531  A.D. 


HERESIES  219 

man.^^  Referring  to  the  ascetic  element  in  the  teachings  of 
this  heretic,  Mirkhond  states  that  Mazdak  prohibited  animal 
food.^°  Mazdak's  revolutionary  reform,  however,  was  not  so 
much  religious  as  it  was  social  and  economic,  for  he  preached 
communism,  pure  and  simple,  even  the  community  of  wives  in 
common. 

The  account  of  Mazdak's  system  is  very  meagre;  but  it  is 
known  that  he  accounted  Jealousy,  Wrath,  and  Greed  as  the 
three  main  causes  of  all  evil  in  the  world.  Every  one,  according 
to  Mazdak's  teachings,  should  be  given  equal  opportunity  and 
equal  share  of  the  enjoyment  of  the  earthly  possessions  of  God. 
So  it  was  originally  ordained  by  God,  but  that  natural  order  has 
been  upset  by  the  aggressive  strong  for  their  own  self-aggrandize- 
ment. Society  should  therefore  return  to  that  original  ideal 
state.  These  revolutionary  teachings  thrilled  for  a  time  Iran, 
and  exercised  a  powerful  fascination  on  the  masses.  The  crisis 
was  brought  to  a  head  when  far  from  taking  any  initiative  to 
stamp  out  the  heresy,  the  king  encouraged  it,  and  finally  em- 
braced it.  His  son.  Prince  Noshirvan,  summoned  the  Dasturs  and 
Mobads  to  consider  the  situation.  It  was  certain  that  the  cult 
would  spread  and  the  young  prince  adopted  severe  measures  to 
suppress  it,  lest  it  should  menace  the  public  peace.  The  clergy, 
who  viewed  the  new  heresy  with  great  alarm,  advised  rigorous 
measures  to  extirpate  the  threatening  creed.  Mazdak  did  not 
live  long  to  preach  his  doctrine,  for  the  prince  arranged  a 
banquet  for  him  and  his  followers,  and  put  them  all  to  the 
sword  in  a.d.  528. 

This  communistic  socialistic  sect  received  therewith  a  fatal 
blow  from  which  it  never  wholly  recovered,  but  it  maintained  a 
feeble  spark  of  life  for  a  considerable  time. 

"'Dabistan,  tr.  Shea  and  Troyer,  i.  373-375;  al-Biruni,  tr.  Sachau,  p. 
192. 

'"  Sacy,  Memoires  siir  diverses  Antiquifes  de  la  Perse,  p.  355. 


CHAPTER  XXVI 
ORMAZD 

The  supreme  godhead.  Orrnazd  is  the  Pahlavi  equivalent  of 
the  Avestan  Ahura  Mazda  in  the  Pahlavi  writings  of  the  Sasanian 
period  and  later.  The  concept  of  the  Highest  Being  retains  its 
former  abstract  and  spiritual  character  in  the  works  of  the 
Pahlavi  writers.  Orrnazd  is  what  the  entire  creation  is  not,  and 
he  is  not  what  anything  in  the  universe  is.  The  author  of  the 
Dinkart  describes  him  by  negatives,  and  states  that  Ormazd  is 
the  sovereign,  and  not  slave;  father,  and  not  child;  first,  and  not 
last ;  master,  and  not  servant ;  lord,  and  not  serf ;  protector,  and 
not  protected;  changeless,  and  not  changeable;  knowledge  itself, 
and  not  acquiring  knowledge ;  giver  and  not  receiver.^  We  shall 
presently  discuss  some  of  the  most  prominent  of  the  divine  attri- 
butes which  the  Pahlavi  works  ascribe  to  Ormazd. 

Ormazd  is  eternal.  Ormazd  had  no  beginning  and  has  no 
end.  His  adversary  is  inferior  to  him  in  this  respect,  that  there 
will  be  a  time  when  he  will  not  exist.  Ormazd  ever  was,  is,  and 
will  ever  be.^  He  is  the  causer  of  causes,  himself  being  cause- 
less.^   He  is  the  prime  source  of  existence.* 

Ormazd  is  invisible.  The  concept  of  the  spirituality  of 
Ormazd  remains  unchanged.  He  is  the  Spirit  of  Spirits.^  In- 
visibility is  the  chief  characteristic  of  spirituality,  and  Ormazd 
is  said  to  be  invisible.^  He  is  so  even  to  the  other  spiritual  beings.'^ 
Though  present  in  everything,  he  is  unseen  anywhere.^  When 
Viraf  is  escorted  by  Srosh  and  Atar  to  the  celestial  court,  and 
presented  by  Vohuman  to  Ormazd  he  hears  the  voice  of  Ormazd, 
sees  a  light,  but  does  not  see  him  face  to  face.^  The  souls  of  the 
righteous  ones  behold  the  place  of  Ormazd  in  heaven,  and  console 
themselves  as  having  seen  Ormazd  himself.^" 

*  Vol.  3,  pp.  176,  177.  '  Dk.,  vol.  6,  p.  390. 
'  Bd.  I.  3;  Dk.,  vol.  2,  p.  103;  Gs.  128.  '  Dd.  31.  6. 

*  Dk.,  vol.  9,  p.  572.  *  Dk.,  vol.  3,  p.  174- 
*Dk.,  vol.  3,  p.  157.  '  AV.  II.   1-6;   loi.  10-12. 
°  Dd.  31.  6;  Sg.  I.  2;  Dk.,  vol.  2.  p.  103.  '"  Dd.  19.  4. 

220 


ORMAZD  221 

He  is  intangible.  The  Gathic  and  Later  Avestan  texts  spoke 
figuratively  of  the  hands,  mouth,  eyes,  and  body  of  Ormazd.  In 
the  Pahlavi  texts  Zaratusht  is  portrayed  as  sitting  by  the  side 
of  the  Lord  and  saying  to  him  that  the  head,  hands,  feet,  hair, 
mouth,  tongue,  and  even  clothes  of  Ormazd  resembled  his  own, 
and  therefore  he  wished  to  grasp  the  Heavenly  Father  with  his 
hands.  Ormazd  thereupon  tells  him  that  this  is  impossible,  for, 
as  the  godhead,  he  is  intangible.^^  A  later  text,  on  the  contrary, 
speaks  of  Ormazd  as  taking  hold  of  the  prophet's  hand  and  giving 
him  wisdom  in  the  shape  of  water  to  swallow.^^ 

He  is  omniscient.  In  his  knowledge  of  the  past,  present,  and 
future  Ormazd  is  without  an  equal.^^  It  is  he  alone  who  is 
called  the  all-knowing  one.^*  He  knows  all  that  is  to  come,  and 
is  aware  of  the  final  overthrow  and  end  of  his  adversary.^^ 
Through  his  wisdom  it  is  that  man  can  guide  himself  in  the 
path  of  righteousness."  Owing  to  his  power  of  comprehending 
everything,  he  is  the  best  judge  of  man.^^  He  knows  the  inmost 
recesses  of  man's  heart,  for  no  secrets  are  hid  from  him. 

He  is  omnipotent.  Despite  his  rival  who  always  thwarts 
his  work,  Ormazd  is  called  omnipotent  and  all-ruling. ^^  Every- 
thing in  the  world  has  some  superior,  Ormazd  alone  has  none.^^ 
He  is  not  wanting  in  anything.^"  The  strongest  of  men  feels 
himself  impotent  before  the  Lord.  There  are  moments  in  each 
man's  life  during  which  his  strength  fails  him,  and  he  longs  for 
the  invisible  power  to  lean  upon.  Ormazd  is  the  power  to  turn  to, 
for  he  is  all-protecting.^^ 

Ormazd  is  the  creator  and  conservator  of  creation.  He 
has  created  the  entire  creation.^^  Through  his  wisdom  he  has 
brought  the  world  into  being  and  exercises  his  providential  care 


11 

12 


SIS.  15.  2,  3. 
BYt.  2.  4,  5- 

'°  Bd.   I.  2;   Dk.,  vol.  I,  p.  34. 

'*Bd.  I.  2;  Sg.  I.  i;  8.  49;  Dk.,  vol.  i,  p.  34;  vol.  2,  p.  103;  vol. 
3,  p.  140;  vol.  5,  p.  331;  vol.  6,  pp.  390,  412,  416;  vol.  7,  PP-  440,  452; 
vol.  8,  pp.  429,  461,  485;  vol.  9,  p.  594;  Jsp.,  p.  no. 

"  Bd.  I.  13,  17,  20;  Zsp.  I.  2;  Dk.,  vol.  4,  p.  258. 

"  Dk.,  vol.  3,  P-  174- 

"  Dk.,  vol.  7.  P-  473- 

"  Sg.  I.  i;  Dk.,  vol.  I,  p.  34;  vol.  2,  p.  103;  vol.  3,  PP-  140,  i57;  vol. 
6,  pp.  390,  412;  vol.  7,  p.  440. 

"  Dk.,  vol.  3,  p.  177- 

""  Dk.,  vol.  3,  P-  174;  vol.  6,  p.  412. 

"  Dk.,  vol.  7,  p.  440. 

"  Dk.,  vol.  3,  pp.  163,  179. 


222  ORMAZD 

to  maintain  it.^^  He  is  the  father  of  man,-*  and  it  is  man's  sacred 
duty  to  obey  his  heavenly  creator.^^  He  is  the  father  and  lord 
of  creation.-''  He  has  created  the  good  creatures,  that  they  may 
participate  in  removing  the  blemish-giver  from  the  world.^'^  Like 
the  w^eaver  he  has  woven  multifarious  objects  on  the  loom  of 
nature.-^  Progress  of  his  creatures  is  his  constant  wish.-^  He 
is  the  eternal  source  of  all  blessings  and  benefactions. 

He  is  all-good.  The  creator  is  supreme  in  goodness ;  ^°  he  is 
all-goodness  without  any  evil.^^  Whatever  is  good  in  the  world 
proceeds  from  him.^-  He  is  foremost  in  goodness ;  ^^  always 
wishing  good,  and  never  contemplating  evil  of  any  kind.^*  His 
goodness  extends  to  the  good  and  evil  alike,^^  for  his  desire  is 
all-beneficent.^*'  This  is  manifest  from  the  infinite  care  which  he 
takes  of  his  creatures,^^  as  he  is  the  preserver  and  protector  of 
man  through  his  perfect  goodness.^^  Man  should  discipline  his 
soul  to  trust  in  the  goodness  of  Ormazd. 

He  is  all-merciful.  The  Heavenly  Father  is  the  source  of 
mercy  and  is  all-merciful.^®  He  is  the  lord  of  beneficence.*" 
He  is  merciful  to  those  who  turn  to  him  in  joy  and  sorrow. 
When  man  looks  to  Ahriman  and  not  to  Ormazd  for  guidance, 
he  incurs  the  divine  displeasure.  Yet  even  if  man  in  this  way 
may  be  out  of  Ormazd's  approbation,  he  is  still  not  out  of  his 
mercy.  The  deity  knows  the  infirmities  of  human  nature  and 
the  weaknesses  of  the  human  heart,  and  forgives  man's  iniquity 
and  transgression,  if,  penitent,  the  sinner  approaches  his  Heavenly 
Father  with  heartfelt  contrition,*^  firmly  resolving  to  redeem  his 
sinful  past  by  good  deeds  present  and  future. 

At  the  end  of  time,  Ormazd  will  gather  back  all  his  creatures 
to  himself.*-  Even  the  sinners  will  not  be  lost  forever.  Yet 
all  this  while  the  merciful  Lord  desires  that  man  may  not  even 
now   leave  his  blessed  company,  for  it  grieves  him  that  man 


Dk.,  vol.  5,  p.  324;  vol.  12,  bk.         "  Dd.  y].  127;  Dk.,  vol.  4,  p.  194. 
6.  311,  p.  26.  *-Mkh.  8.  22. 


"  Gs.  122.  "  Mkh.  38.  4- 

Dk.,  vol.  4,  p.  268.  '"  Sg.  8.  53.  • 

Dk.,  vol.  5,  p.  Z^Z.  "  Sg.  8.  57,  58. 

Dk.,  vol.  II,  bk.  6.  135,  p.  39.           "'  Dk.,  vol.  3,  P-  140. 

Dk.,  vol.  7,  p.  425.  '"  Dk.,  vol.  6,  p.  385. 

Dd.  3.  I,  2.  "  Mkh.  I.  I. 

'"  Bd.  I.  2.  "  Dk.,  vol.  I,  p.  9- 

"   Zsp.  I.  17.  "  Dk.,  vol.  6,  p.  416. 

Dk.,  vol.  12,  bk.  6  B.  2,  p.  38. 


2S 
28 
27 
28 

:e 


31 
S2 


ORMAZD  223 

should  suffer  even  temporarily  through  his  own  perverse  con- 
duct, and  thus  postpone  the  ultimate  renovation. 

Ormazd  is  light  physically,  morally  he  is  truth.  When 
Viraf,  as  hallowed  visitant  of  true  faith  to  the  realms  supernal, 
is  escorted  by  Srosh  and  Atar  as  angel  guides  to  the  presence 
of  Ormazd,  the  sage  finds  to  his  utter  bewilderment  that,  al- 
though the  almighty  Lord  is  graciously  pleased  to  greet  him  with 
audible  divine  words,  he  himself  can  see  nothing  in  the  ineffable 
presence  but  the  sovereign  light.*^  This  endless  light  is  emblem- 
atic of  Ormazd,  who  dwells  therein.**  All  light  proceeds  from 
Ormazd.*^  In  the  moral  sphere  Ormazd  is  eternal  truth. 
Porphyry  of  Tyre  ^'^  says  that  he  learnt  from  the  Magi  that  they 
upheld  the  view  that  the  body  of  Ormazd  resembled  Hght,  and  his 
soul  was  a  likeness  of  truth.*'^ 

He  is  all-just.  Great  is  the  goodness  of  Ormazd,  but  his 
justice  demands  that  he  shall  not  make  awards  regardless  of  the 
merits  or  demerits  of  man.  He  is  the  divine  law-giver,  and  as 
such  he  is  the  sovereign  judge.  The  guilty  man  who  affronts  him, 
the  sinner  who  lives  and  moves  without  contrition  in  his  heart, 
the  rebel  who  discards  divine  authority,  all  need  a  corrective.  As 
the  lord  of  mercy  he  forgives,  but  as  the  lord  of  justice  he 
punishes  as  well.  He  is  the  giver  of  the  reward  of  merit,*^  and 
does  not  let  pass  a  single  good  deed  of  man  unrewarded.*^ 

Man  should  devote  himself  body  and  soul  to  Ormazd. 
Man  has  an  inborn  impulse  that  prompts  him  to  strive  after  the 
divine.  He  looks  to  God  for  the  satisfaction  of  the  yearnings  of 
his  heart,  even  though  the  Evil  Spirit  ever  struggles  to  steal  away 
his  heart  from  Ormazd.  In  the  age-long  conflict  between  good 
and  evil,  man's  soul  forms  the  prize  of  the  two  combatants. 
Whether  he  shall  be  a  willing  prize  in  the  hands  of  Ormazd,  or  a 
rebel  prey  in  the  clutches  of  Ahriman,  rests  with  him.  Man, 
therefore,  should  learn  to  know  himself.  Religion  best  teaches 
him  to  do  this.  This  knowledge  of  the  self  it  is  that  will  put  him 
into  right  relation  with  his  Heavenly  Father,  and  thus  save  him 
from  falling  a  victim  to  Druj.^°  Man  toils  to  teach  the  parrot  and 
the  pet  nightingale,  but  neglects  to  tame  himself  in  the  service  of 
the  Lord.    The  animal  in  his  makeup  asserts  itself  under  such  cir- 

"  AV.  loi.  4-12.  "  Vita  Pyth.,  41. 

"Bd.  I.  2;  Zsp.  I.  2.  "Dk.,  vol.  6,  p.  361. 

"  Gs.  132.  "  Dk.,  vol.  6,  pp.  385,  386. 

"  About  230-300  A.D.  *"*  Dk.,  vol.  6,  p.  356. 


224  ORMAZD 

cumstances  and  prevents  his  spirit  from  singing  glory  to  his 
creator.  Man's  evil  thoughts  and  sensual  appetites,  hampering 
his  spiritual  growth,  prove  to  be  only  so  many  turns  and  windings 
that  lead  him  astray  from  the  path  of  Ormazd  to  that  of  Ahriman. 
Well  can  we  see  why  man  has  constantly  to  beware  of  these; 
the  tempestuous  storm  may  overtake  him  at  any  moment,  if  he 
has  not  made  any  provision  in  the  hour  of  calm.  There  is  no 
hope  for  the  individual  who  demeans  and  debases  himself,  and 
is  loath  to  leave  the  path  of  wickedness.  It  is  through  the  help 
of  Ormazd  that  man  can  liberate  himself  from  the  evil  designs 
of  Ahriman,  and  make  himself  worthy  for  eternal  bliss.^^ 

Man  should  further  know  Ormazd,  for  to  know  him  is  to 
follow  him.  This  is  the  desire  of  the  godhead.^^  He  loves  man 
with  the  love  of  a  father  for  his  child.^^  It  behooves  man  to  live 
in  accordance  with  the  divine  will,  and  to  offer  to  him  worship 
and  glorification.^*  He  is  worthy  of  man's  praise  because  of  his 
wise  dispensation  unto  man.^^  Purity  of  thought,  word,  and  deed 
is  the  most  acceptable  sacrifice  to  be  given  to  Ormazd.  The 
righteous  person  w^ho  furthers  his  creation  by  his  holy  deeds 
pleases  him  most.^^ 

Devotion  to  Ormazd  should  dominate  man's  entire  being,  and 
man  stands  firm  as  a  rock  in  the  midst  of  trials  and  sufferings  as 
long  as  he  lives  for  Ormazd.  Woe  unto  him  who  ceases  to  be 
good,  for  Ormazd  departs  from  his  sinful  person  and  the  wicked 
man  becomes  a  partner  of  Ahriman.^''  The  strongest  of  the  strong 
has  to  turn  to  God  for  succour  in  the  moment  of  overwhelming 
trouble,  and  Ormazd's  help  is  the  best  preservative  of  man  from 
all  calamities.  In  the  moment  of  the  bitterest  anguish,  when 
man's  heart  sinks  under  sorrow,  when  cramping  and  sordid 
poverty  brings  depression,  when  the  cup  of  misery  is  filled  to  the 
brim,  and  the  spirit  is  wrung  with  grief,  man  finds  the  final  refuge 
in  him.^^  When  man  is  devoutly  resigned  to  Ormazd,  he  is 
saved  from  all  troubles.^^ 

In  his  divinity,  moreover,  Ormazd  desires  that  man  shall  not 
come  to  him  simply  when  reduced  to  dire  extremities,  but  shall 
be  constant  in  his  devotion,  whether  amid  happiness  or  in  misery. 


SI 


Dk.,  vol.  7,  p.  441.  "  Dk.,  vol.  6,  p.  390. 

Mkh.  40.  24,  25;  Dk.,  vol.  7,  p.  444;"  Dk.,  vol.  8,  p.  489. 
vol.  10,  bk.  6.  31,  p.  ID.  "  Dk.,  vol.  3,  p.  179. 

Dk.,  vol.  7,  p.  441.  "Dk.,  vol.  II,  bk.  6.  126,  p.  33 

Dk.,  vol.  9,  p.  641.  "  Dk.,  vol.  10,  bk.  6.  28,  p.  9. 


ORMAZD  225 

Man  shall  not  serve  him  because  he  fears  him,  but  because  he 
loves  him.  The  devout  shall  not  remember  him  in  need,  and 
forget  him  in  plenty ;  nor  shall  he  pay  homage  to  Ormazd  in  the 
temple,  and  bend  his  knees  to  Ahriman  outside. 

The  Holy  Spirit.  Spena  Menu  is  the  Pahlavi  equivalent  of 
the  Avestan  Spenta  Mainyu,  or  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  occurs 
especially  in  the  great  Pahlavi  work  Dinkart  as  the  divine  attri- 
bute of  Ormazd.  Instances  may,  however,  be  cited  in  which 
the  Holy  Spirit,  here  as  in  the  Gathas,  seems  to  have  been  re- 
garded as  a  being  separate  from  Ormazd.®''  Like  the  Younger 
Avestan  texts,  the  Dinkart  speaks  of  the  creation  of  the  Holy 
Spirit. "^^  He  is  the  source  of  all  virtue,  as  his  rival  Gana  Menu 
or  Ahriman  is  the  originator  of  vice.*^^  The  good  qualities  of 
man  that  make  him  righteous  are  derived  from  him.®^  To  know 
Spena  Menu,  is  to  reach  him,^*  and  the  devout  person  who  is  in 
spiritual  communion  with  the  Holy  Spirit  prospers  in  this 
world. "^^  When  a  man  is  possessed  of  the  power  of  Spena  Menu, 
he  is  able  to  rout  the  Evil  Spirit,®*'  but  when  he  sinfully  puts  out 
the  Holy  Spirit  from  his  person,  he  exposes  himself  to  the  dan- 
ger of  being  overpowered  by  the  arch-fiend.®^  Spena  Menu  warns 
man  of  the  temptations  of  the  Evil  Spirit,  and  inspires  him  with 
pious  thoughts.®^ 

Vohuman,  the  genius  of  wisdom,  and  also  the  innate  wis- 
dom, are  the  products  of  Spena  Menu,®^  and  it  is  the  Holy  Spirit 
that  bestows  the  gift  of  divine  wisdom  upon  man."°  In  fact  the 
Mazdayasnian  religion  itself  is  the  innate  intelligence  of  Spena 
Menu." 

Spena  Menu  will  ultimately  triumph  over  the  wicked  Gana 
Menu,^^  and  banish  evil  from  the  world. '^^ 


Dk.,  vol.  2,  p.  120;  vol.  4,  p.  194;  vol.  5,  pp.  297,  328. 
'  Vol.  5,  p.  325 ;  vol.  8,  p.  442. 

Dk.,  vol.  5,  P-  348. 

Dk.,  vol.  5,  p.  341- 
«■'  Dk.,  vol.  8,  p.  442. 

"  Dk.,  vol.  5.  pp.  328,  340;  vol.  8,  pp.  441,  442. 
"  Dk.,  vol.  4,  pp.  208,  209. 
"  Dk.,  vol.  2,  p.  108. 
•*  Dk.,  vol.  4,  pp.  250-252. 

Dk.,  vol.  3,  p.  158. 

Dk.,  vol.  8,  p.  477- 

Dk.,  vol.  8,  p.  474. 
"Dk.,  vol.  4,  pp.  252,  253;  vol.  7,  p.  462;  vol.  8,  p.  441. 
"  Dk.,  vol.  5,  p.  326. 


70 
71 


CHAPTER  XXVII 
AMSHASPANDS 

The  archangels.  The  Avestan  designation  Amesha  Spenta, 
representing  the  highest  celestial  beings,  now  assumes  the  form 
Amshaspand  or  Amahraspand.  With  Ormazd  as  the  president 
of  the  celestial  council  the  Amshaspands  are  seven  in  number,"- 
though  occasionally  Goshorun  and  Neryosangh  are  also  classed 
among  the  archangels. ^  A  late  Pazand  prayer  called  Shikasta-i 
Shaitan,  or  the  Annihilation  of  Satan,  augments  the  list  of  the 
Amshaspands  and  speaks  of  them  as  being  thirty-three  in  number. 
Ormazd  has  created  his  colleagues.^  They  are  both  males  and 
females.*  The  first  seven  days  of  each  month  bear  their  names. ^ 
Every  one  of  the  group  has  a  special  flower  dedicated  to  him 
or  her.*^  Their  abode  is  in  the  all-glorious,  all-delightful  Best 
Existence.^  A  later  Pahlavi-Pazand  work  states  that  the  seven 
Amshaspands  have  emanated  one  from  the  other,  that  is,  the  sec- 
ond from  the  first,  the  third  from  the  second,  and  so  on.* 

Their  attributes.  The  Amshaspands  are  immortal,  invisible,** 
intangible,^"  of  great  wisdom,  friendly  to  the  good  creation,  the 
forgiving  ones,^^  holy,  wise,  far-seeing,  beneficent  and  intelli- 
gent.^^ Inasmuch  as  they  owe  their  existence  to  Ormazd  they  are 
finite,"  yet  so  great  is  their  brilliance  that  Zaratusht  does  not 
see  his  own  shadow  on  the  ground  when  he  approaches  them 
in  heavenly  conference.^* 

Their  work.  Various  are  the  boons  that  the  archangels 
give  unto  men.^^  Just  as  in  the  Later  Avestan  descriptions, 
they  come  down  to  the  sacrifice,^''  and  accept  the  prayers  and 

*Zsp.  21.  12;  22.  i;  Dd.  43.  8,  9.  :      "Dd.  74.  2;  Dk.,  vol.  i,  p.  47- 

'  SIS.  22.  14;  Dk.,  SEE.,  vol.  47,  bk.  "  SIS.  15.  3- 

7.  2.  21.  p.  23.  "  Dd.  74.  3. 

'Bd.  I.  23,  26.  "Jsp.,  p.  no. 

*BYt.  2.  64.  "Dk.,  vol.  2,  p.  114. 

"Bd.  27.  24;  SIS.  22.  1-7;  23.  I.  "Zsp.  21.  13. 

«  Bd.  27.  24.  '"  SIS.  22.  1-7. 

'Dd.  74.  2;  94.  12.  "SIS.  19.  7- 
*Jsp.  no. 

226 


AMSHASPANDS  227 

offerings  of  pious  men,  if  performed  with  accuracy ;  but  they  do 
not  grace  the  ceremony  with  their  august  presence  when  it  is 
performed  by  impious  persons,  and  with  faulty  recitals. ^^  They 
dwell  in  the  man  over  whom  wisdom  has  full  sway,^^  and  those 
men  alone  who  are  blessed  with  superior  wisdom  are  under 
their  protection.^^  Three  times  every  day  they  form  an  assembly 
in  the  fire-temples  and  shed  good  works  and  righteousness  around 
for  the  advantage  of  the  devout  votaries  that  frequent  the  sacred 
places. ^°  It  is  the  will  and  pleasure  of  Ormazd  that  mankind 
shall  propitiate  them,  and  Zaratusht  is  commissioned  to  exhort 
mankind  so  to  do.-^  Ormazd  further  tells  the  prophet  that  the 
recital  of  their  names  is  good,  the  sight  of  them  is  better,  but  to 
carry  out  their  commands  is  best.^^  Man  should  be  quick  to 
speak  the  truth,  ever  thinking  that  the  invisible  archangels  are 
standing  by  his  side  to  watch  him.^^  Ormazd  confers  with  them 
in  regard  to  creating  Zaratusht  on  earth,  and  they  help  the 
godhead  in  this  great  work.^*  They  rout  the  demons,'^  and  join 
naturally  in  lending  assistance  to  Tishtar  in  his  struggle  with 
Apaosh.-^  They  successfully  conduct  Zaratusht  through  the 
three  ordeals  in  heaven — the  first  by  fire,  the  second  by  molten 
metal,  and  the  third  by  the  knife.  All  the  symbolic  bearing  of 
these  tests  they  explain  to  him  as  the  veritable  trials  to  prove 
the  steadfastness  of  the  faithful  when  called  upon  in  troublous 
times  to  vindicate  the  truth  of  the  religion.^^ 

The  great  change  wrought  in  the  concept  of  the  function 
of  the  Amshaspands,  in  contradistinction  to  Gathic  and  Later 
Avestan  times,  is  that  their  work  of  guarding  the  concrete 
objects  of  the  world  receives  greater  attention  than  their  prime 
work  of  enforcing  the  abstract  virtues  which  they  personify. 
In  the  Pahlavi  period  they  have  severally  been  assigned  the  work 
of  guarding  seven  worldly  creations,  man,  animals,  fire,  metal, 
earth,  water,  and  plants.-^    The  text  just  cited  goes  further  and 


"  SIS.  9.  10. 

"  Dk.,  vol.  3,  P-  159. 

"  Dk.,  vol.  8,  pp.  462,  463. 

"  SIS.  20.  I ;  Dk.,  vol.  12,  bk.  6.  301,  p.  15. 

"  SIS.  15.  30. 

"Zsp.  21.  18. 

"  Dk.,  vol.  II,  bk.  6.  91,  pp.  5,  6. 

^*Dk.,  SBE.,  vol.  47,  bk.  7.  2.  19-35,  pp.  22-26. 

"  Bd.  30.  29. 

"  Dd.  93.  13,  14. 

"  Zsp.  21.  24-27. 

"SIS.  13.  14;  15;  5- 


228  AMSHASPANDS 


29 


asserts  that  each  Amshaspand  has  produced  his  own  creation 
These  objects  are  the  counterparts  of  the  Amshaspands,  and 
their  propitiation  is  equivalent  to  propitiating  their  spiritual 
masters.^" 

VOHUMAN 

His  materialization.  Ormazd  is  the  father  of  Vohuman, 
or  Good  Mind,  who  is  the  first,  after  the  godhead,  in  the  entire 
creation,^^  and  therefore  standing  next  only  to  Ormazd  himself.^- 
Vohuman  is  intangible,^^  but  is  depicted  as  assuming  the  form 
of  a  man  when  he  is  commissioned  by  Ormazd  to  hold  a  con- 
ference with  Zaratusht  about  the  new  faith.  The  prophet  sees 
Vohuman  coming  from  the  southern  regions.^*  The  archangel 
seems  to  be  of  as  great  height  as  three  men's  spears  and  he 
holds  a  twig,  the  spiritual  symbol  of  religion,  in  his  hand.^= 
Another  text  speaks  of  him  as  coming  in  the  form  of  a  hand- 
some, brilliant,  and  elegant  man,  of  nine  times  the  height  of 
Zaratusht,  clad  in  rich,  shining  clothes.^*'  When  Vohuman 
escorted  Zaratusht  to  the  council  of  the  Amshaspands,  the  prophet 
saw  that  Vohuman  took  only  nine  steps  to  cover  as  much  space 
in  walking  as  he  himself  did  in  ninety  steps."  The  pure,  white 
garment,  the  sacred  shirt  of  the  faithful,  is  designated  as  Vohu- 
man's  raiment.^* 

He  protects  Zarathusht  from  the  time  of  the  prophet's 
birth,  and  helps  him  in  his  prophetic  work.  Ormazd  consults 
Vohuman  together  with  Artavahist  about  the  appropriate  time  of 
sending  Zaratusht  to  the  world,  and  Vohuman  accordingly  works 
miraculously  to  facilitate  the  birth  of  Zaratusht.^^  He  enters 
into  the  reason  of  the  infant,**^  and  makes  the  child  laugh  im- 
mediately at  birth."     When  Ahriman  lets  loose  the  fiends  to 

"  SIS.  15.  4. 
""SIS.  15.  6. 

"  Bd.  I.  23;  Dk.,  SBE.,  vol.  37,  bk.  g.  38.  6,  p.  274;  Dk.,  vol.  i,  p.  34- 
"  Dk.,  vol.  9,  PP-  572-574. 
"  SIS.  15.  3. 
*  Dk.,  SEE.,  vol.  47,  bk.  7.  3.  51,  PP-  47,  48. 

Dk.,  SEE.,  vol.  47,  bk.  7.  3-  52,  p.  48. 

Zsp.  21.  8. 

Zsp.  21.  12. 

Dd.  39.  19;  40.  2. 
"  Dk.,  SEE.,  vol.  47,  bk.  7.  2,  17,  19,  24-26,  29,  33,  pp.  22-26. 
"  Zsp.  20.  3. 
"Zsp.  14.  12;  Dk.,  SEE.  vol.  47,  bk.  5.  2.  5,  P-  123. 


AMSHASPANDS  229 

destroy  the  babe,  Ormazd  sends  Vohuman  to  save  it.*-  The 
archangel  hastens  to  the  home  of  Zaratusht,  and  dispels 
Akoman,  whom  he  finds  there."^  When  the  child  prophet,  accord- 
ing to  the  fable,  was  put  in  the  den  of  wolves  by  the  wizards, 
Vohuman,  with  the  help  of  Srosh,  took  a  sheep  full  of  milk  at 
night  and  suckled  the  child."  The  Gathas  refer  to  Vohuman's 
coming  to  Zaratusht  in  order  to  impart  to  him  enlightenment. 
We  have  in  the  Pahlavi  texts  the  details  of  their  meeting  and 
their  conversation.  On  being  questioned  by  Vohuman  as  to  his 
most  ardent  desire,  Zaratusht  declared  it  to  be  righteousness,*'^ 
and  Vohuman  even  conducted  him  into  the  celestial  council.*^ 
Ormazd,  as  the  Pahlavi  writings  record,  sent  Vohuman  along 
with  the  other  Amshaspands  to  the  court  of  Vishtasp  in  order 
that  they  might  testify  to  the  truth  of  the  sacred  mission  of 
the  prophet.*'    The  archangel  is  the  friend  of  Zaratusht.*^ 

Vohuman's  functions.  He  was  one  of  the  bearers  of  religion 
from  the  Deity  to  Siamak,  the  son  of  the  first  human  pair.*^  He 
co-operates  with  Tishtar  in  pouring  down  rain  on  the  earth. ^^ 
He,  as  a  divine  aid,  helps  man  to  perform  meritorious  deeds." 
It  is  the  duty  of  Vohuman  to  record  the  doings  of  men  three 
times  every  day,  and  to  keep  account  of  their  thoughts,  words, 
and  deeds."  As  the  recorder  of  the  actions  of  mankind  in  the 
material  world,  he  naturally  appears  in  connection  with  the 
celestial  assize  which  takes  account  of  the  doings  of  the  souls 
when  they  proceed  to  the  next  world  after  death.^^  When  the 
pious  soul  approaches  heaven  he  welcomes  it,  and  assigns  its 
place  and  reward  in  paradise.^*  Vohuman  gives  reward  to  him 
who  practises  virtue,  and  teaches  mankind  to  refrain  from  sin."^^ 
It  is  Vohuman  who  pictures  the  final  good  at  the  Renovation 
to  children  if  they  turn  out  to  be  righteous,  and  it  is  for  this 


"  Zsp.  14.  9. 

"  Zsp.  14.  10,  II. 


"Zsp.  16.  9;  Dk.,  SBE.,  vol.  47,  bk.  7.  3.  17,  p.  39- 

"  Zsp.  21.  9,  10;  Dk.,  SBE.,  vol.  47,  bk.  7.  3.  54-S9,  PP-  48,  49- 

"Zsp.  21.  11;  Dk..  SBE.,  vol.  47,  bk.  7.  3.  60-62,  pp.  49,  50. 

*'  Dk.,  vol.  9,  pp.  615,  616;  SBE.,  vol.  47,  bk.  7.  4.  74-82,  pp.  67-70. 

"  Dk.,  SBE.,  vol.  ZT,  bk.  9-  38.  12,  p.  276. 

"  Dk.,  vol.  7,  p.  457- 

"  Bd.  7.  3 ;  Zsp.  6.  3. 

"  Dk.,  vol.  8,  p.  446. 

"  Dd.  14.  2. 

"Dd.  31.  II. 

"  Dd.  31.  5;  Dk.,  SBE.,  vol.  zi,  bk.  8.  44-  78,  p.  164. 

"  Dk.,  SBE.,  vol.  37,  bk.  9.  47.  15,  p.  306. 


230  AMSHASPANDS 

reason  that  children  who  are  innocent  are  always  cheerful. ^^ 
At  the  time  of  the  renovation  of  the  universe  man  will  profit 
through  the  friendship  of  Vohuman,^"  and  it  is  Vohuman  who 
ushers  in  the  Messianic  benefactors,  and  brings  Hoshedar,  Hoshe- 
darmah,  and  Soshyos  into  conference  with  Ormazd.^^  Vohuman 
will  smite  forever  his  adversary  Akoman,  the  demon  of  evil 
thought,  at  the  final  restoration  of  the  world.^^ 

Goodness  and  wisdom  abound  in  man  when  he  welcomes 
Vohuman  as  his  guest.  Ormazd  tells  Zaratusht  that  the  one 
who  welcomes  X'ohuman  learns  the  distinction  between  the 
ways  of  good  and  of  evil.*^*^  Reverence  for  Vohuman  brings 
submission  to  virtue,  and  man  thereby  detects  his  inner  tendency 
to  evil  and  sin.*^^  Through  the  possession  of  Vohuman  he  comes 
to  a  better  understanding  of  good  and  evil,**^  and  the  possession 
of  Vohuman  serves  to  explain  to  him  Vohuman's  true  nature.®^ 
The  man  who  loves  Vohuman  and  his  wisdom  learns  the  dis- 
crimination between  good  and  evil  and  thus  gratifies  Ormazd."^* 
The  creator  has  put  Vohuman  in  man's  body  to  withstand 
Akoman.''^  He  resides  in  the  human  conscience,  and  imparts 
wisdom ;  '^^  and  when  he  is  lodged  and  treasured  there  in  the  heart 
of  the  faithful,  he  increases  man's  knowledge  of  religion. ^^ 
Light,  purity,  perfume,  and  the  archangels  are  in  the  man  who 
welcomes  Vohuman  as  his  guest,^^  and  that  individual  in  whom 
Vohuman  predominates  is  rich  in  contentment,  and  receives 
praise  in  both  the  worlds.^^  Peace  and  righteousness  prevail, 
when  one's  will  is  ruled  by  Vohuman.  Whoever  entertains  this 
celestial  being  as  his  guest  purifies  his  own  thoughts,  words, 
and  deeds  ;  ^°  and  the  man  that  has  Vohuman  as  his  guest  becomes 
staunch  in  virtue.'^^     The  lover  of  Vohuman  spreads  instruction 

"  Dk.,  vol.  8,  p.  439. 

^'Gs.  158. 

"  Phi.  Ys.  28.  9. 

"  Bd.  30.  29. 

•"  Dd.  7-  7- 

"  Dk.,  SBE.,  vol.  37,  bk.  9.  53  33,  pp.  335,  336. 

"  Dk.,  SEE.,  vol.  37,  bk.  9.  31.  I4,  P-  248. 

"  Dk,  SEE.,  vol.  37,  bk.  9.  51.  10,  pp.  320,  321. 

"  Dk.,  SBE,  vol.  37,  bk.  9.  54.  6,  pp.  341,  342. 

"  Dk,  vol.  9,  p.  625. 

*'  Dk,  vol.  8,  pp.  480,  481. 

"'  Dk.,  SEE.,  vol.  37,  bk,  9.  50.  14,  pp.  313,  314. 

Dk.,  SEE.,  vol.  37,  bk.  9.  67.  4,  p.  382. 

Dk.,  vol.  3,  p.  159- 

Dk.,  vol.  I,  pp.  27,  28. 

Dd.  3.  14;  Dk.,  SBE.,  vol.  37,  bk.  9.  47-  16,  pp.  306,  307. 


70 
71 


AMSHASPANDS  231 

of  virtue  in  the  world.^^  Anyone,  furthermore,  who  speaks  words 
of  virtue  sacrifices  unto  Vohuman.''  In  order  that  Vohuman 
may  dwell  in  man,  every  vestige  of  evil  thought  should  be 
destroyed.  When  he  has  taken  his  seat  in  man,  wrath  dis- 
appears; but  when  man  indulges  in  this  vice,  Vohuman  departs 
from  him/*  Sin  flees  away  where  Vohuman  resides ;  ^^  but 
prosperity,  good  reputation,  and  piety  ensue  where  Vohuman 
has  his  dwelling-place  in  man.'^'^  Vohuman  is  besought  to  grant 
wisdom  and  good  thoughts.^^  Man  is  exalted  by  imbibing  the 
superior  knowledge  of  Vohuman,'^^  and  wisdom  comes  through 
the  friendship  of  Vohuman/^  The  archangel  preserves  intelli- 
gence in  man,^°  and  endows  him  with  wisdom.®^ 

On  the  material  side  Vohuman  is  the  patron  divinity  of 
animals.  In  the  creation  of  this  world,  cattle  are  placed  under 
the  care  of  Vohuman.^^  The  true  follower  of  Zaratusht  nour- 
ishes and  feeds  them,  protects  them  from  oppressors,  and  de- 
livers them  not  over  to  cruel  tyrants;  it  is  such  a  one  that 
propitiates  Vohuman ;  ^^  for  cattle  are  the  counterparts  of  Vohu- 
man, and  he  who  is  good  to  them  reaps  the  benefit  of  both  the 
worlds.^*  Vohuman,  accordingly,  asks  Zaratusht  in  his  confer- 
ence with  the  prophet  to  maintain  the  species  of  certain  classes 
of  animals  in  the  world.^^ 


Artavahisht 

His  zeal  for  the  protection  of  fire  now  supersedes  his 
primal  work  of  guarding  righteousness.  Artavahisht  is  the 
Pahlavi  form  of  the  Avestan  name  read  as  Asha  Vahishta,  and 
really  preserves  the  older  form,  Arta.  Righteousness,  over  which 
this  archangel  presides,  remains  still  in  the  Pahlavi  period  the 
cardinal  word  of  the  religion,  but  this  divine  personality  is  less 
frequently  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  abstract  virtue  than 
in  connection  with  fire,  the  physical  object  which  is  under  his 
tutelage.     Fire  is  his  earthly  counterpart,  and  whoso  procures 

"  Dk.,  SEE.,  vol.  2,7,  bk.  9.  63.  9,  p.  272.    "  Dk.,  vol.  6,  p.  357- 

"  Dk.,  SEE.,  vol.  2,7,  bk  9.  52.  3,  P-  323-    '"  Dk-  vol.  3,  P-  1S2. 

"  Sg.  8.  128,  129.  "  Dk.,  vol.  8,  pp.  471,  472. 

"Dk.,  vol.  II,  bk.  6.  193,  p.  69.  "  SIS.  13.  14;  15.  5. 

"  Dk,  vol.  6,  pp.  410,  411.  "SIS.  15.  9,  10. 

"  SIS.  22.  2.  '"  SIS.  15.  II. 

"  Dk.,  vol.  6,  pp.  413,  414.  "  Zsp.  22.  6. 


232  AMSHASPANDS 

wood  and  incense  for  the  fire  by  honest  means  propitiates  him.^® 
For  that  reason,  Artavahisht  in  his  conference  with  Zaratusht 
commissions  the  sage  to  teach  the  people  of  the  world  not  to 
ill-treat  fire.®^  Ormazd  has  given  him  sovereignty  in  heaven, 
with  the  power  of  refusing  admission  therein  to  those  who 
have  displeased  him.^^  The  Dinkart  tells  us  that  he  excluded 
the  soul  of  the  mighty  hero  Kersasp,  because,  despite  his  great 
heroic  works  by  which  he  had  saved  the  world  from  the 
atrocities  of  monsters,  he  had  once  extinguished  fire.^^  The 
Shayast-la-Shayast  incidentally  records  that  Artavahisht  is  in- 
visible.^" 

His  work.  He  accompanies  Vohuman  to  protect  Zaratusht 
when  he  was  born,  and  when  he  became  a  prophet,  the  arch- 
angel goes  to  the  royal  court  of  Vishtasp  as  an  envoy  of  Ormazd 
to  convince  him  of  the  divine  nature  of  the  seer's  mission." 
Ormazd  sends  through  him  also  a  cup  of  immortal  drink  to  King 
Vishtasp  to  enlighten  that  monarch  with  spiritual  vision. ^^  We 
can  see,  therefore,  why  Artavahisht  is  implored  to  grant  under- 
standing and  intelligence.^^  When  a  sick  person  is  healed,  the 
spiritual  debt  is  due  to  Artavahisht.^*  He  is  the  mighty  power 
that  will  smite  his  adversary  Indar  at  the  Renovation.^^ 

Shatravar 

Once  the  genius  of  the  Divine  Kingdom  of  Ormazd,  but 
in  the  Pahlavi  period  the  guardian  spirit  of  the  mineral 
kingdom  only.  The  abstract  virtue  of  sovereign  power  which 
this  archangel  personified  is  unknown  throughout  the  Pahlavi 
literature,  his  activity  being  now  mainly  restricted  to  metal,  which 
is  placed  under  his  guardianship.^*'  When  Shatravar  confers 
with  Zoroaster  in  heaven  he  advises  him  to  teach  mankind  to 

«•  SIS.  15.  5.  12,  13. 
"  Zsp.  22.  7. 
»'Sd.  II.  5. 

Dk.,  SBE.,  vol.  18,  pp.  369-382;  vol.  Z7,  bk.  9.  15.  3,  4,  p.  199. 

SIS.  15.  3. 

Zsp.  23.  7 ;  Dk.,  SBE.,  vol.  47,  bk.  7.  2.  17,  19,  24,  25,  29,  pp.  22-25 ; 
4-  75,  78,  pp.  67-69. 

Dk.,  SEE.,  vol.  47,  bk.  7.  4.  84-86,  pp.  70,  71. 

SIS.  22.  3. 

Dk.,  SEE.,  vol.  2,1,  bk.  8.  j,"].  14,  p.  116. 

Bd.  30.  29. 

Ed.  30.  19;  SIS.  13.  14,  39;  15.  5. 


90 
81 


92 
83 
94 

9g 

96 


AMSHASPANDS  233 

make  good  use  of  metals."  Metals  are  the  special  product  of 
Shatravar,  and  those  who  desire  to  profit  in  both  the  worlds 
through  the  propitiation  of  this  genius  of  those  elements  should 
not  give  gold  and  silver  to  the  wicked,  or  make  any  ill  use  of 
them."^  It  is  said  that  the  best  way  of  such  propitiation  of  the 
divine  personage  is  to  be  pure  and  unsullied  of  heart,  so  that 
even  if  one  is  subjected  to  the  ordeal  of  the  molten  metal  and 
the  burning  liquid  is  poured  on  his  breast,  one  may  not  burn  and 
die  like  a  sinner,  but  may  come  out  of  the  trial  as  successful  as 
the  great  Sasanian  Dastur  Adarbad,  who  felt  as  if  milk  were 
being  poured  on  his  breast  when  he  voluntarily  submitted  him- 
self to  this  test  for  the  good  of  the  religion.^^  As  the  lord  of  the 
hidden  treasures  of  the  earth  Shatravar  is  asked  to  grant 
wealth ;  "°  and  in  the  final  battle  between  good  and  evil  he  will 
assail  his  adversary  Sovar  and  destroy  him.^*'^ 


Spandarmad 

02 


Her  work.  She  gives  bodily  strength  and  vigour  unto  man,^ 
and  has  the  lodgment  in  man's  will."^  Any  one  who  entertains 
her  as  his  guest  becomes  truly  devotional. ^°*  The  advice  of  this 
female  archangel  is  that  one  should  consult  a  good  man,  when 
one  is  in  doubt  as  to  good  or  evil  deed,  for,  just  as  the  swiftest 
horse  sometimes  requires  a  whip  and  the  sharpest  knife  a  whet- 
stone, so  even  the  wisest  man  needs  counsel. ^°^ 

As  the  genius  of  earth,^*"^  Spandarmad  rejoices  when  the 
faithful  cultivate  waste  land  and  rear  cattle  upon  it,  or  when 
a  virtuous  son  is  born  upon  it.^°^  But  she  is  grieved  when  a  rob- 
ber or  a  tyrant  treads  over  her  sacred  face."^  Even  as  a  mother 
carrying  her  dead  child  in  her  bosom  is  in  grief  and  sorrow, 
so  does  Spandarmad  suffer  when  wicked  persons  trample  on  her 
breast.^"^  The  genius  of  earth  trembles  like  a  sheep  that  sees 
a  wolf,  when  the  corpse  of  a  wicked  one  is  interred  in  her.^^° 
When  a  corpse  is  buried  in  the  ground  she  is  shocked,  as  when 
one  discovers  a  serpent  or  a  scorpion  in  his  bed."^     Even  walk- 

•'Zsp.  22.  8.  "»S1S.  10.  2T,  28;  Sd.  85.  3- 

»«  SIS.  15.  18,  19.  "'  BYt.  2.  8,  16,  31,  48,  53 ;  SIS.  13.  M- 

"SIS.  15.  15,  17.      ■  '"SIS.  15.  24. 

SIS.   22.  4.  "«S1S.    15.   22. 

Bd.  30.  29.  ""  SIS.  15.  23. 

Dk.,  vol.  9,  P-  582.  "*  Sd.  65.  5. 

Dd.  94-  2.  '"  Sd.  zz.  2. 

Dk.,  vol.  10,  bk.  6.  78,  p.  22. 


100 
101 
102 

103 
104 


234  AMSHASPANDS 

ing  with  bare  foot  upon  the  ground  injures  her.^^^  The  faithful 
who  wish  to  propitiate  her  should  propitiate  both  the  earth  and 
virtuous  women. ^^^ 

Spandarmad  in  the  Pahlavi  period  takes  up  a  new  function 
which  was  not  hers  in  the  earlier  times.  She  becomes  the 
guardian  of  virtuous  women,  as  intimated  in  the  close  of  the 
preceding  paragraph."*  Whoever  desires  to  propitiate  her, 
should  propitiate  the  virtuous  women ;  "^  and  through  her  inter- 
vention men  pray  for  noble  wives."*^  When  a  faithless  wife  of 
a  righteous  husband  has  her  abode  on  her  earth,  Spandarmad  is 
in  sore  distress."^  He  will  rout  his  adversary  Taromat  at  the 
Renovation."^* 

Khurdad 

The  giver  of  daily  bread.  On  the  material  side  this  arch- 
angel has  water  for  his  special  care,^^^  and  Zaratusht  is  com- 
missioned by  this  archangel  to  advocate  good  use  of  it  in  the 
world."^  As  water  gives  fertility  to  the  land  and  is  the  source 
of  prosperity,  Khurdad  is  taken  as  the  possessor  of  plenty  and 
prosperity,  and  is  invoked  by  the  pious  to  bestow  these  gifts 
upon  mankind.^^°  Food  and  drink  are  his  gifts.^^^  It  is  said 
that  the  daily  bread  which  every  one  obtains  in  this  world 
throughout  a  year  is  apportioned  in  the  celestial  world  on  the 
day  Khurdad  of  the  first  month  of  the  Zoroastrian  calendar  and 
the  archangel  intercedes  in  behalf  of  those  who  have  propitiated 
Khurdad  by  their  deeds,  and  that  these  offerings  thus  secure 
for  the  faithful  a  larger  share  in  this  annual  allotment  of  earthly 
riches.^^^  Those  who  make  proper  use  of  water  rejoice  Khurdad 
and  receive  rewards  in  both  worlds ;  ^^^  but  those  who  are  guilty 
of  its  misuse  or  defilement  find  their  way  to  heaven  blocked  up 
by  the  spirits  that  preside  over  water.^'*  In  addition  the  Pahlavi 
writings  record  that  an  unseasonable  chatter  and  an  immoderate 
drinking  of  wine  distress  him.^^^  Khurdad  will  drive  away  his 
adversary,  the  demon  Tairev,  at  the  time  of  Resurrection.^^^ 

"*  Sd.  44.  I.  "'a  Bd.  30.  29.  "'  Sd.  52.  2,  3- 

"'  SIS.  15.  20.  "'  SIS.  9.  8;  13.  14;  '"  SIS.  15.  25,  29. 

»*  SIS.  IS.  5.  15.  5-  '"  SIS.  15.  27,  28. 

"'  SIS.  IS.  2Q  "» Zsp.  22.  II.  ""  Mkh.  2.  33,-34; 

"«  SIS.  22.  s-  ""  SIS.  22.  6.  16.  49,  56. 

SIS.  15.  22.  "'  Dk.,  vol.  7,  p.  461.  ""  Bd.  30.  29. 


117 


AMSHASPANDS  235 


Amardad 

Amardad  confines  his  activity  to  guarding  the  vegetable 
kingdom,  and  does  not  represent  immortality,  which  is  his 
prerogative.  This  divinity  works  in  the  vegetable  kingdom  that 
belongs  above  all  to  him,^^^  and  helps  those  who  work  for  the 
plant  world.^^^  Food  and  drink  are  in  his  care.^^^  Like  his 
comrade  Khurdad,  Amardad  refuses  a  passage  to  heaven  to  those 
who  sin  against  plants,  and  do  not  expiate  the  wrong.^^°  The 
prophet  is  requested  by  him  to  enjoin  rules  for  the  preser- 
vation of  plants.^^^  He  will  banish  Zairich  from  the  world  in 
the  final  struggle.^^^ 

^"  Bd.  9.  2;  Zsp.  8.  I ;  SIS.  9-  8;  13-  14;  i5-  5-         "°  SIS.  15.  27,  28. 
^"^  SIS.  IS.  25,  29.  '"  Zsp.  22.  12. 

"'  Dk.,  vol.  7,  P-  461.  '"  Bd.  30.  29. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 
IZADS 

The  angels.  Izad  is  the  Pahlavi  equivalent  of  the  Avestan 
word  Yazata,  and  is  similarly  employed  as  the  designation  for 
an  angel.  These  angels  are  immortal  and  invisible ;  ^  and  some 
of  them,  vifho  were  pre-eminently  the  genii  of  the  living  in  the 
Younger  Avestan  period,  have  by  this  time  been  transferred 
more  particularly  to  the  sphere  of  the  dead.  For  example, 
Srosh,  Rashn,  and  Mihr,  three  of  the  most  prominent  Izads  of 
the  Avestan  period,  have  changed  their  sphere  of  activity.  In 
the  Avestan  period  they  were  the  genii  exclusively  of  the  corporeal 
world,  but  now  they  are  converted  into  the  judges  of  the  dead. 
In  the  Pahlavi  time,  the  faithful,  rather  than  looking  to  them 
for  protection  and  help  in  this  world,  solicit  more  especially  their 
favour  for  the  next  world.  Srosh  still  retains  some  of  his  earthly 
functions,  but  he  becomes  the  genius  of  the  dead  first,  and  of 
the  living  afterwards.  The  angels  Hom  and  Din  have  extended 
their  sphere  of  activity  by  joining  Tishtar  in  his  work  of  pro- 
ducing rain.2  Certain  qualities  that  were  attributed  in  the 
Avestan  texts  to  one  angel  are  now  loosely  ascribed  to  another. 

The  Izads  are  the  loving  guides  and  protectors  of  men. 
They  first  expounded  the  faith  of  Ormazd  to  Gayomard,  the 
primeval  man ;  ^  and  they  are  ever  ready  to  fulfil  the  behests  of 
Ormazd,  who  has  created  them  for  the  welfare  of  his  creatures.* 
They  most  frequently  visit  the  sacred  temples  consecrated  to  the 
fire  Bahram.^  They  help  man,''  and  instruct  him  in  goodness. '^ 
It  is  through  their  aid  that  man  learns  to  know  God,  to  dispel 
demons,  and  to  liberate  his  soul  from  the  future  torments  of 
hell.^  Man's  knowledge  of  them  enables  him  to  enter  into  re- 
lationship with  his  creator ;  ^  for  he  is  unable  to  progress  morally 

^  Dk.,  vol.  I,  p.  47;  vol.  2,  pp.  65,  66,  114.  '  Dk.,  vol.  i,  pp.  44,  45. 

'  Bd.  7.  3;  Zsp.  6.  3;  Dk.,  vol.  3,  p.  146.  '  Mkh.  52.  15. 

'  Dk.,  vol.  7,  p.  457-  '  Dk.,  vol.  2,  p.  85. 

*  Dk.,  vol.  3,  p.  170.  •  Dk.,  vol.  2,  p.  81. 

•  Dk.,  vol.  II,  bk.  6.  230,  p.  87. 

236 


IZADS  237 

without  their  assistance.^"  If  man  remembers  them,  he  receives 
their  favour  and  prospers  in  both  worlds,"  Through  their  wis- 
domi,  moreover,  he  becomes  illustrious,^^  and  attains  to  spiritual 
wealth  through  them.^^  They  hasten  to  help  the  man  who 
practises  righteousness  and  abstains  from  wickedness ;  ^*  such  a 
man  wins  their  favour  by  invoking  them/^  It  was  for  this  very 
reason  that  the  prophet  Zaratusht  prayed  to  them  to  grant  him 
the  power  of  spiritual  leadership.^^  They  keep  ofif  Druj  from 
the  body  of  man,  and  guard  him  against  the  miseries  of  both  the 
worlds. ^^  As  a  physician  removes  bodily  illness,  or  as  a  farmer 
cleans  corn  of  all  impurity,  so  do  the  angels  remove  harm  from 
man.^^  They  keep  up  this  relation  with  man  as  long  as  he  prac- 
tises goodness,  but  they  give  up  his  company  when  he  falls  into 
sinful  habits.^''  They  lodge  in  the  body  of  a  righteous  person, 
causing  him  joy,-"  and  instruct  the  faithful  in  spiritual  matters ;  ^^ 
moreover,  sin  flees  from  him  in  whom  they  dwell. -^  They  help 
and  protect  a  pious  man,  even  as  a  loving  master  would  lead  a 
calf  to  the  pasture  land  and  prevent  it  from  going  to  a  place 
of  harm.-^  Like  loving  parents  who  prohibit  their  children  from 
partaking  of  some  unwholesome  food,  the  angels  prevent  man, 
even  against  his  will,  from  doing  that  which  they  foresee,  through 
their  superior  knowledge,  to  be  of  eventual  harm  to  him.^* 
Persons  who  befriend  the  righteous  in  this  world  find  angels  as 
their  friends  in  the  next ;  -^  the  good  leave  name  and  fame  here, 
and  are  blessed  with  the  company  of  the  angels  there. -^ 

Sacrificial  offerings  made  to  the  angels.  We  have  already 
seen  that  meat  formed  a  conspicuous  article  among  the  sacrificial 
gifts  made  to  the  heavenly  beings  in  the  Avestan  period.  Meat 
viands  are  the  special  feature  of  the  sacred  feast  during  the 
Pahlavi  period.  The  Pahlavi  treatise  Shayast-la-Shayast  ex- 
plains what  particular  parts  of  a  slaughtered  animal  are  to  be 
specifically  dedicated  to  the  various  divinities  in  ceremonies. 
The  angel  Hom's  right  to  receive  the  tongue,  jaw,  and  left  eye, 

"  Dk.,  vol.  4,  p.  249.  "  Dk.,  vol.  I,  p.  26. 

"  Dk.,  vol.  7,  p.  454-  '"  Dk.,  vol.  11,  bk.  6.  97,  pp.  12,  13;  236, 

"  Dk.,  vol.  7,  p.  488.  pp.  90,  91. 

"  Dk.,  vol.  7,  p.  490.  "  Dk.,  vol.  II,  bk.  6.  214,  p.  79. 

"  Dk.,  vol.  2,  p.  65.  "  Dk.,  vol.  3,  P-  153. 

"  Dk.,  vol.  7,  p.  454.  "  Dk.,  vol.  13,  bk.  6,  E.  i,  p.  i. 

''lb.  "Dk.,  vol.  II,  bk.  6.  222,  p.  83. 

"  Dk,  vol.  8,  pp.  475,  476.  "  Dk.,  vol.  11,  bk.  6.   133.  PP-  38,  39- 

"  Dk.,  vol.  I,  pp.  38,  39.  "Dk.,  vol.  II,  bk.  6.  140,  pp.  41,  42. 


238  IZADS 

recognized  by  the  Avestan  scriptures,  remains  still  undisputed. ^^ 
The  head  and  neck,  shoulders  and  thighs,  loin  and  belly,  kidneys 
and  lungs,  liver  and  spleen,  legs  and  tail,  heart  and  entrails  are 
all  distributed  among  several  different  beings ;  until  at  last  the 
tail-bone  falls  to  the  lot  of  the  august  Farohar  of  Zaratusht,  and 
the  great  archangels  have  to  content  themselves  merely  with  the 
residue.-^  Decomposed  meat  is  not  to  be  consecrated  to  any 
angel ;  ^^  nor  is  any  meat  at  all  to  be  used  in  any  ceremony  for 
the  first  three  days  after  the  death  of  a  person,  but  milk,  cheese, 
fruit,  eggs,  and  preserves  are  to  be  consecrated  instead.^"  It  is 
stated  that  if  the  relations  of  the  deceased  person  were  to  con- 
secrate and  eat  fresh  meat  within  three  days  after  his  death, 
another  death  might  perchance  occur  in  the  family.^^  Yet  on  the 
fourth  day  they  may  slaughter  a  goat  or  a  sheep.^'  A  short 
formula  is  to  be  recited  by  the  man  who  slaughters  this  animal.^^ 
It  is  desirable  that  the  head  of  a  slaughtered  animal  should  be 
consecrated  before  being  eaten;  but  if  it  is  not  possible  to  con- 
secrate the  head,  one  kidney  at  least  must  necessarily  be  con- 
secrated.^* 

In  our  treatment  of  the  Izads  individually,  which  we  shall  now 
undertake,  we  shall  deal  only  with  those  that  are  discussed  at  any 
great  length  in  the  Pahlavi  works. 

Srosh 

His  activity.  The  whole  earth,  or  more  especially,  Arzah 
and  Savah,  two  of  the  zones,  are  the  abode  of  Srosh.^^  Three 
times  every  night  he  comes  to  the  world.^''  According  to  the 
Pahlavi  texts,  precisely  as  was  recorded  above  for  the  Avestan 
scriptures,  the  cock  and  dog  are  his  associates  in  routing  the 
demons.^^  He  helps  the  man  who  in  the  midst  of  temptations 
practises  virtue ;  ^®  for  he  makes  his  abode  in  the  body  of  a 
righteous  person;  and  the  man  in  whose  body  he  is  a  guest 
becomes  the  more  polite  in  his  utterances  of  welcome.^^  Again 
we  see  Srosh  inspiring  an  intelligent  man  to  speak  good  words, 
as  also  an  unintelligent  one  who  listens  to  the  teachings  of  the 

^*  Antia,  Pazand  Texts,  p.  178,  Bombay,  1909. 
"■  Sd.  34.  4-6. 

]\Ikh.  62.  25. 

SIS.  13.  43. 

Bd.  19.  2>?,- 

Dk.,  vol.  II,  bk.  6.  90,  pp.  4,  5. 

Dk.,  vol.  10,  bk.  6.  78,  p.  21. 


"  SIS.  II.  4,  6. 

33 

"  SIS.  II.  4. 

34 

''  SIS.  10.  34- 

35 

'"  SIS.  17.  2;  Sd.  78.  I. 

3a 

"  Sd.  78.  2. 

37 

"  SIS.  17.  5. 

88 

IZADS  239 

high-priests.*"  When  the  prophet  child  was  thrown  into  the  lair 
of  a  wolf  for  destruction,  Srosh  and  Vohuman  brought  a  sheep 
with  udder  full  of  milk  to  the  den  for  the  babe's  nourishment.*^ 
Srosh,  likewise,  escorted  Viraf  in  his  journey  to  heaven  above 
and  to  hell  below ;  and  at  the  time  of  the  final  restoration  of 
the  world,  Ormazd  will  depute  him  with  Neryosangh  to  arouse 
the  sleeping  hero  Kersasp  and  fire  him  with  the  spirit  to  kill  the 
accursed  Zohak.*^  Srosh,  in  the  final  struggle  between  the 
angels  and  the  demons,  will  smite  his  adversary  Eshm.*^  He 
will  then  join  in  ofificiating  with  Ormazd  in  celebrating,  once  and 
forever,  the  final  destruction  of  evil.** 

A  judge  of  the  dead.  Srosh  is  one  of  the  judges  who  take 
accounts  of  the  souls  of  the  dead  at  the  Bridge  of  Judgment.*^ 
If  a  man,  during  his  lifetime,  performs  the  three  nights  cere- 
monies in  honor  of  Srosh  for  the  future  welfare  of  his  soul,  the 
angel  will  not  forsake  him  for  the  first  days  after  his  death.**^  At 
the  dawn  of  the  fourth  day  after  the  death  of  a  righteous  per- 
son, Srosh  accordingly  helps  to  conduct  his  soul  across  the 
bridge.*^  Ceremonies  are  therefore  to  be  performed  in  honour 
of  Srosh  for  the  first  three  days  and  nights  after  death,  in  order 
that  this  divine  helper  may  protect  the  soul  from  the  attack  of  the 
demons  during  this  period,**  and  may  serve  in  its  favour  at  the 
seat  of  judgment.*^  Specially  distinct  praise  and  reverence  are 
to  be  bestowed  upon  Srosh,  and  even  the  names  of  the  arch- 
angels should  not  be  associated  with  him.^°  In  addition,  it  may 
be  noted,  regarding  Srosh's  relation  to  mankind,  that  when 
children  under  seven  years  of  age  die,  their  souls  accompany  in 
the  hereafter  those  of  their  parents,  to  heaven  or  hell,  wherever 
the  parents  happen  to  be.  On  the  other  hand,  invocation  of 
Srosh  in  the  name  of  the  child  enables  its  soul  to  separate  itself 
from  those  of  its  parents. ^^ 

MlHR 

Lord  chief  justice  of  the  heavenly  tribunal.  Though  re- 
taining  his    appellation    of    being   the    lord    of    wide    pastures, 

"  Dd.  3.  14-  "  Sd.  58.  4,  7. 

"  Zsp.  16.  9;  Dk.,  SEE.,  vol.  47,  bk.  7.  3.  17,  p.  39     "  Mkh.  2.  115,  124. 

"  BYt.  3.  59,  60.  *'  SIS.  17.  3. 

"  Bd.  30.  29 ;  Mkh.  8.  14.  "  Dd.  28.  6. 

"  Bd.  30.  30.  o"  Dd.  29.  2. 

"Dd.  14.  4;  28.  s;  Mkh.  2.  118.  "Sd.  47.  1-3. 


240 


IZADS 


Mihr  ^^  no  longer  appears  as  a  pastoral  divinity ;  neither  is  he 
seen  driving  in  his  chariot  to  the  battlefield  as  a  war  angel.  He 
has  chosen  a  quieter  realm  of  work,  and  now  occupies  a  seat  in 
Ormazd's  privy  council  in  heaven.  He  administers  justice  at 
the  heavenly  court,  and  is  one  of  the  celestial  judiciaries  that 
make  up  the  reckoning  of  good  and  evil  deeds  of  the  souls  at 
the  Bridge  of  Judgment. ^^  All  mankind  has  to  appear  before 
this  lord  of  truth  and  justice.^*  In  his  trial  of  the  dead,  as  the 
ancient  divine  personage  presiding  over  truth,  he  exposes  those 
guilty  of  breach  of  promise.^"  Great  is  the  distress  of  every 
soul  at  the  Bridge,  but  Mihr  saves  those  souls  that  have  belonged 
to  truth-speaking  persons.^® 

Morning  time  is  the  proper  time  for  the  ceremonials  to  be  per- 
formed in  honour  of  Mihr;^^  and  the  old  idea  has  never  been 
lost,  that  none  should  lie  unto  him.^*  That  law  remained  ever 
supreme. 

At  the  time  of  Renovation  Mihr  will  help  Peshyotan,  who  has 
lain  asleep,  tradition  repeats,  from  ancient  times  only  to  help 
in  confounding  the  Evil  Spirit,  who  will  flee  back  to  the  darkest 
recess  of  hell.^^ 

Rashn 

He  holds  the  balance  of  judgment  in  the  celestial  court. 
This  Izad  of  the  Avesta,  who  traversed  all  earthly  regions  and 
presided  at  the  ordeals,  in  regard  to  mankind,  is  transferred 
in  the  texts  of  the  Pahlavi  period  to  the  celestial  world. 
As  genius  of  truth,  Rashn  now  sits  in  the  heavenly  tribunal 
for  judging  the  souls  of  the  dead.^°  He  holds  in  his  hands 
the  golden  balance  and  weighs  the  good  and  evil  deeds  of  the 
souls.®^ 

A  sacred  cake  is  consecrated  to  Rashn,  as  an  angel,  on  the 

"Av.  Mithra. 

"Dd.  31.  11;  Mkh.  2.  118;  Sd.  1.4;  18.  16;  100.  2;  AV.  5;  AnKhK.,  5. 

"  Gs.  169. 

"  Dd.  14.  3. 

"  Dk.,  SBE.,  vol.  37,  bk.  9.  20.  4,  p.  210. 

Dk.,  SBE.,  vol.  27,  bk.  9.  9.  7,  pp.  183,  184. 

Dk.,  SEE.,  vol.  27,  bk.  9.  20.  5,  p.  210. 

BYt.  3-  32-36. 

Dd.  14.  4;  31.  11;  Sd.  I.  4;  iS.  16;  58.  s;  100.  2;  Dk,  vol.  5,  pp. 
280,  281 :  .^nKhK.   S- 

"Mkh.  2.  118,^119;  AV.  s-  5. 


BT 
SS 

e» 
so 


IZADS  241 

dawn  of  the   fourth   day  after  the  death  of  a  person.^^     The 
proper  period  to  commemorate  him  is  at  dawn.*'^ 

Khurshed 

His  message  to  mankind.  Man  should  invoke  this  personi- 
fication of  the  sun  three  times  every  day.  He  should  completely 
resign  himself  to  Ormazd,  and  expiate  his  sins;  he  should  also 
daily  interrogate  his  own  self  as  to  whether  he  has  lived  that 
day  in  the  pious  service  of  Ormazd  or  in  the  accursed  bondage 
of  Ahriman.*'*  Khurshed  delivers  three  messages  of  Ormazd  every 
day  to  mankind.  In  the  first,  or  the  message  of  the  morning, 
Ormazd  desires  that  mankind  be  zealous  in  doing  meritorious 
deeds,  so  that,  by  Ormazd  himself,  their  condition  in  this  world 
may  be  made  better.  Secondly,  at  noon,  men  are  reminded  to 
marry  and  have  children ;  and  are  likewise  exhorted  to  co-operate 
with  each  other  in  doing  good  deeds  that  will  prevent  Ahriman 
and  his  brood  from  freeing  themselves  out  of  bondage  until  the 
day  of  resurrection.  In  the  third,  or  evening  message,  mankind 
are  reminded  to  repent  of  sins  they  may  have  unconsciously  com- 
mitted, as  in  that  case  they  would  be  forgiven.''^  One  should 
reverence  the  sun  during  the  day,  for  not  to  do  so  is  sin.*^*^  It 
is  proper  to  invoke  it  even  if  it  is  not  visible  owing  to  cloudi- 
ness ;  '^^  otherwise  by  not  thus  reverencing  it,  the  good  works  that 
a  man  does  that  day  lose  their  value  for  him.*^^ 

TiSHTAR 

He  retains  his  position  as  the  genius  of  rain.  The  Pahlavi 
writers  reproduce  the  account  of  Tishtar's  fight  with  Aposh  from 
the  Avestan  Yasht  8.  which  celebrates  his  work.^^  The  Yasht 
spoke  of  the  help  that  Ormazd  gave  Tishtar  when  he  was  routed 
in  his  first  combat  with  his  adversary  and  invoked  the  Supreme 
Being  for  help  and  strength.  The  Dadistan  adds  that  besides 
Ormazd    the   archangels   and   the   guardian   spirits   also   carried 

"Dd.  30.  2;  SIS.  17.  4. 

*'  Dk.,  SBE.,  vol.  37,  bk.  9.  g.  6,  p.  183. 

"  Dk.,  vol.  II,  bk.  6.  227,  p.  86. 

"Gs.  154-157. 

<">  SIS.  7.  I,  3. 

"  lb.,  5. 

"  SIS.  7-  6. 

"  Bd.  7.  3-10;  Zsp.  6.  3,  4,  9-11,  13. 


243  IZADS 

help  to  him.^°  Vohuman,  Ardvisur,  Vat,  Horn,  and  Din  are 
spoken  of  as  his  associates/^  Tishtar  seizes  rain  water  from 
the  ocean,^^  carries  seeds  of  plants  with  it  and  scatters  them  all 
over  the  world.  This  angel  of  rain  removes  the  hot  winds  that 
parch  the  dry  lands  and  spreads  prosperity  all  around  by  means 
of  his  fertilizing  waters. 


TO 


93.  13.  "  Dk.,  vol.  3,  p.  146.        "  Mkh.  62.  41,  42. 


CHAPTER  XXIX 
FAROHARS 

The  Farohars  have  existed  long  before  the  world  came 
into  being.  Farohar,  or  Fravahar,  is  the  Pahlavi  fonn  of  the 
Avestan  Fravashi.  The  Pahlavi  works  do  not  speak  of  the 
Farohars  of  Ormazd  and  his  heavenly  ministers ;  in  the  writings 
of  this  period,  the  Farohars  are  confined  to  the  earthly  creatures. 
Every  single  good  creature  of  this  world  has  its  own  Farohar.^ 
Ormazd  created  them  long  before  he  brought  the  universe  into 
existence;  and  they  actively  worked  by  the  creator's  side,  when 
he  fortified  the  sky  against  the  attacks  of  Ahriman.  Mounted 
on  horses  and  with  spears  in  hands  they  patrolled  the  boundaries 
of  the  rampart  of  heaven.^  At  the  beginning  of  the  world 
Zaratusht's  Farohar  was  shown  to  Goshurun,  the  Spirit  of  the 
Universe,  to  console  her  that  in  the  fulness  of  time  the  prophet 
would  be  sent  to  the  world  to  remove  the  iniquity  that  was  ram- 
pant on  earth.^ 

They  volunteer  to  descend  to  earth  and  stand  by  men  to 
the  end  of  their  lives.  From  the  beginning  of  time  the  Farohars 
lived  in  supreme  felicity  in  the  empyrean  realm,  along  with 
Ormazd  and  his  heavenly  host.*  When  Ormazd  created  man,  as 
the  climax  and  crown  of  his  earthly  creation,  the  deity  asked 
these  spiritual  intelligences  whether  they  would  wish  to  stay 
in  heaven  under  his  constant  protection,  or  migrate  to  earth  in 
human  bodies  and  encounter  the  foe,  fight  with  him  valiantly, 
vanquish  him  in  the  flesh  and  return  triumphant  to  God  for  the 
eternal  reward.  The  Farohars  accepted  the  latter  alternative, 
and  prepared  themselves  to  face  the  attack  of  Ahriman.^  Thus 
the  Farohars,  who  were  seated  in  heaven  and  were  conscious 
of  the  beatific  vision  of  Ormazd,  prefer  the  voluntary  exile  for  a 
time  in  the  world  of  joy  and  sorrow,  of  good  and  evil,  in  order 

*  Mkh.  49.  23.  '  Bd.  4.  4.  '  Bd.  2.  10,  11. 

*  Bd.  6.  3 ;  Zsp.  5.  2.  *  Dk.,  vol.  2,  p.  80. 

243 


244  FAROHARS 

to  win  forever  the  uninterrupted  bliss  of  heaven.  Thus  it  is,  that 
they  tenant  human  bodies  and  temporarily  adopt  the  material 
vehicles  for  the  express  purpose  of  routing  evil  and  redeeming 
the  world  from  its  imperfections. 

In  the  Pahlavi  period  their  influence  is  less  prominent.  In 
the  Pahlavi  texts  the  Farohars  are  represented  as  intrusted 
with  the  work  of  guarding  the  soul  of  Sam,®  and  the  Horn  tree 
of  immortality,^  as  well  as  the  passage  of  hell.^  Ninety-nine 
thousand  nine  hundred  and  ninety-nine  of  them  watch  over 
Zaratusht's  seed,  which  will  give  birth  to  the  three  last  saviour 
renovators  of  the  world  in  the  last  three  millenniums.^  As  a 
part  of  their  office  also  they  help  and  keep  pure  the  elements 
and  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars ;  ^°  and  they  preserve  the  breath 
of  life  and  energy  of  the  body  in  men,^^  and  keep  the  bodily 
organs  in  unison.^- 

The  zeal  with  which  they  were  approached  by  the  living  in 
the  Avestan  period  has  considerably  abated  by  this  time.  The 
faithful  no  longer  invoke  them  for  various  boons  as  zealously 
as  their  forebears  did.  The  fighting  armies  do  not  call  upon 
them  for  help  in  the  thick  of  battles.  Men  do  not  look  to  them 
for  riches  and  plenty ;  and  women  do  not  turn  their  eager  eyes 
to  them  for  easy  childbirth.  Their  hold  on  humanity  is  weakened, 
and  they  are  less  in  touch  with  the  daily  lives  of  men  than 
before. 

One  of  the  later  Pahlavi  works  divests  the  Farohars  of  their 
spirituality,  and  identifies  them  with  the  stars.^^  The  Farohars 
of  the  renovators  are  spoken  of  as  created  from  the  body  of  the 
first  man.^* 

It  is  for  the  welfare  of  the  living  that  the  Farohars  solicit 
sacrifices.  It  is  the  sacred  duty  of  the  faithful  to  commemorate 
the  Farohars  of  the  dead,  especially  on  the  days  set  apart  for 
that  purpose. ^^  The  Farvardigan  festival  was  a  national  institu- 
tion, and  the  kings  and  people  zealously  observed  it.  A  Byzantine 
ambassador  on  his  way  to  Persia  in  565  was  prevented  from 
entering  the  city  of  Nisibis  for  ten  days  while  this  festival  was 


Bd.  29.  8;  Mkh.  62.  23,  24.               "  Dk.,  vol.  6,  p.  353. 

Mkh.  62.  28,  29  "  Dk.,  vol.  6,  p.  409. 

Mkh.  49.  15,  16.  "  Mkh.  49.  22. 

Bd.  22.  8,  9-  "  Mkh.  27.  17. 

'  Dk.,  vol.  8,  p.  446.  ^*  SIS.  10.  2;  12.  31. 


FAROHARS  245 

celebrated  there.^^  On  the  fourth  day  after  death  the  Farohar  of 
the  departed  one  in  a  family  is  to  be  invoked  along  with  the 
Farohars  of  all  righteous  persons  that  have  lived  in  this  world 
from  the  time  of  the  first  man  on  earth,  and  also  of  those  that 
will  live  up  to  the  advent  of  the  renovator  of  the  world."  When 
thus  invoked  in  prayer  the  Farohars  come  down  to  attend  the 
ceremonies ;  ^®  but  if  they  are  not  properly  propitiated,  they  wan- 
der disconsolate  about  their  former  abodes  for  a  time  and  finally 
depart  leaving  their  curse.  Such  a  curse  is  irrevocable,  if  once 
given,  unless  nullified  by  the  Farohars  who  uttered  it. 

Besides,  it  is  not  for  their  own  good  that  the  Farohars  seek 
invocation,  because  they  do  not  need  any  ceremony  for  their 
own  sake ;  their  coming,  rather,  is  to  remind  the  householder  of 
the  life  after  death,  to  warn  him  that  he  also  will  one  day  have 
to  leave  this  world,  and  that  when  trouble  comes  upon  him  they 
could  not  help  him,  if  he  neglected  them.^^  Yet,  if  well  propi- 
tiated by  the  survivors  of  the  deceased,  they  escort  the  souls  of 
these  persons,  when  their  turn  of  death  comes.  They  intercede 
on  their  behalf,  give  a  good  report  to  Ormazd,  and  entreat  him 
to  give  them  due  reward.^"  But  if  the  living  have  neglected 
them,  and  have  failed  to  sacrifice  unto  them,  they  depart  cursing, 
and  bide  their  time,  until  the  day  when  death  brings  the  survivors 
to  the  Bridge  of  Judgment.  To  such  souls,  now  stepping  on  the 
threshold  of  the  next  world,  they  utter  reproaches  and  refuse 
help.-^ 

The  line  of  distinction  betw^een  the  souls  and  the  Farohars 
of  the  dead  is  gradually  obliterated  in  the  Pahlavi  texts.  By 
the  end  of  the  Pahlavi  period  both  of  these  spiritual  faculties, 
namely,  the  soul  and  the  Farohar,  come  to  be  considered  as  one 
and  the  same.  The  Pahlavi  texts,  accordingly,  speak  of  the 
souls  or  of  the  Farohars,  as  the  case  may  be,  as  coming  to  this 
world  on  the  days  originally  dedicated  to  the  latter.  The 
Avestan  texts,  on  the  other  hand,  always  spoke  of  the  advent 
of  the  Farohars  (not  of  the  souls)  to  this  world  on  the  festival 
days  consecrated  to  them  at  the  end  of  every  year,  but  the  Pahlavi 

*'  Menander  Protector,  ed.  Niebuhr,  p.  374,  Bonn,  1829. 

"SIS.  17.  5;  Dd.  28.  7;  81.  15. 

"SIS.  9.  II,  12. 

"  SIS.  9.  13 :  Sd.  13.  6-9. 

"  Sd.  z-].  6-8. 

*^  Sd.  ZJ-  10-12. 


246  FAROHARS 

works  expressly  speak  of  the  souls  descending  to  the  earth  on 
these  days,  as  well  as  on  the  anniversaries  of  their  bodily  death.^^ 
A  passage  speaks  of  the  souls  as  coming  on  their  anniversaries, 
accompanied  by  nine  thousand  nine  hundred  and  ninety-nine 
Farohars  from  heaven  as  their  guests,  just  as  men  do  on  earth.^^ 

"Phi.  Vd.  8.  22;  Sd.  ZT.  1-12.  "Sd.  13.  3- 


CHAPTER  XXX 
EVIL 

Independent  origin  of  evil.  The  sharp  antithesis  of  the 
Avestan  period  between  good  and  evil  is  still  further  intensified 
by  the  Pahlavi  writers.  In  fact  dualism  reaches  its  consumma- 
tion in  this  period.  It  is  the  standard  philosophy,  and  is  upheld 
as  the  only  possible  solution  of  the  problem  of  evil.  The  author 
of  the  Shikand  Gumanik  Vijar,  who  is  himself  a  dualist  of  the 
most  pronounced  kind,  strongly  urges  in  his  polemics  against 
other  religions  that  good  and  evil  can  on  no  account  have  origi- 
nated from  one  and  the  same  source.  Evil  is  considered  to  have 
as  independent  and  complete  an  existence  as  good ;  they  are  both 
primeval.  They  are  so  entirely  separate  from  each  other  that 
neither  good  originates  from  evil,  nor  evil  from  good.^  Each  one 
of  them  exists  by  itself,  and  entertains  perpetual  antagonism 
towards  the  other.-  The  pairs  of  opposites  such  as  heat  and 
cold,  perfume  and  stench,  pleasure  and  pain,  health  and  sickness, 
life  and  death,  and  all  others  fall  under  the  compass  of  these 
fundamental  terms,  good  and  evil.^  This  dualism  between  good 
and  evil  in  the  moral  realm  is  the  same  as  that  between  light 
and  darkness  in  the  physical  world.  Right  is  identified  with 
light,  and  wrong  with  darkness.  There  has  never  been  anything 
in  the  world  which  is  not  either  good  or  evil  or  a  mixture  of  both.* 
Besides,  in  all  periods,  evil  is  found  to  be  stronger  than  good- 
ness.^ The  nature  of  divinity  is  light  and  beauty,  fragrance  and 
purity,  goodness  and  wisdom ;  for  darkness  and  ugliness,  stench 
and  pollution,  evil  and  ignorance  are  outside  of  his  nature. "^ 
Ormazd  is  not  responsible  for  this  imperfect  side  of  existence. 

Tracing  both  good  and  evil  to  God  deprives  him  of  his 
divinity.  It  seems  that  the  dualistic  system  is  criticized  by  the 
non-Zoroastrian  critics  as  detracting  from  the  grandeur  of  the 


'  Sg.  8.  89,  102. 

"  lb.,  92-99,  loi. 

'lb.,  11.97. 

=•  lb.,  90,  91. 

*  lb.,  100;  II.  158. 

'lb.,  319,  320. 

/^ 


247 


248  EVIL 

godhead;^  but  the  author  of  this  treatise  retorts  by  arguing  at 
length  that  the  indispensable  attributes  of  God,  such  as  his  good- 
ness, omniscience,  omnipotence,  and  the  rest,  demand  that  he 
could  not  simultaneously  be  the  producer  of  good  and  of  evil. 
If  evil  is  also  his  creation,  God  is  either  not  wholly  good  or 
he  is  not  wholly  powerful ;  both  good  and  evil  cannot  be  depend- 
ent on  his  will.  The  controversialist  continues  by  addressing 
arguments  to  prove  that  Ormazd  cannot  be  held  accountable  for 
evil  without  impairing  some  one  or  more  of  his  attributes  that 
are  essential  to  his  divinity;  and  whatever  reflects  upon  even  a 
single  of  his  divine  attributes  degrades  his  position.  We  shall 
now  see  the  main  arguments  advanced  by  the  learned  contro- 
versialist against  the  theory  of  tracing  both  good  and  evil  to  one 
and  the  same  source. 

The  goodness  of  Ormazd  demands  that  he  could  on  no 
account  be  the  author  of  evil.  One  of  the  essential  requisites 
of  the  godhead  is  goodness.  If  evil  arises  from  him  as  the  deity, 
he  is  imperfect  in  goodness,  and  consequently  could  not  be  de- 
serving of  praise  and  sacrifice  from  men.^  Men  cannot  pray  to 
one  who  is  partly  good  and  partly  evil.  If  the  divine  being  could 
have  averted  evil  from  mankind,  and  did  not  so  will  it,  he  is 
not  perfect  in  goodness ;  and  a  being  that  is  imperfect  in  good- 
ness is  not  to  be  glorified  by  men.^  If  he  is  perfect  in  goodness, 
he  could  not  wish  for  the  presence  of  evil,  but  only  for  its  ex- 
tinction ;  ^°  for  a  being  whose  will  is  evil  is  unworthy  of  his 
divinity.^^  Such  a  view  destroys  his  attribute  of  goodness.  But 
Ormazd  is  perfect  in  goodness ;  ^^  and  consequently,  his  will  being 
eternally  good,  only  goodness  should  prevail  in  the  world  from 
its  beginning  up  to  its  end."  But,  the  author  maintains,  the, 
world  shows  more  of  evil  than  goodness,^*  hence  evil  is  outside 
of  and  independent  of  Ormazd.  Beside  all  that,  everything  in 
the  world  either  happens  through  his  will,  or  it  does  not,  or  there 
may  be  some  things  that  happen  through  his  will,  and  others 
through  the  will  of  some  other.^^  If  both  the  good  and  evil 
come  to  pass  through  his  will,  then  his  will  is  not  perfect,^^  and 
the  being  whose  will  is  imperfect  is  himself  imperfect. ^^  If 
nothing  proceeds  through  his  will,  he  works  automatically  and 

'Sg.   12.  33.  34-  "'IK  35.  "/&.,  155-157- 

'lb.,  II.  I03-III.  "Zsp.  I.  17.  "/&.,  125-132,  159-162,  344-351- 

'lb.,  280-284,  315-  "  Sg.  II.  339-342-  "lb.,  162. 

"lb.,  II.  311.  '*  lb.,  36,  343. 


EVIL  249 

is  therefore  made  by  some  one,^^  but  this  is  unthinkable.  If 
some  things  are  through  his  will  and  others  through  the  will  of 
some  other  being,  God  either  ordains  the  existence  of  the  good 
or  the  evil,  for  there  is  nothing  in  the  world  which  is  not  the 
result  of  either  of  the  two.  If  God  wills  good,  some  one  else  wills 
evil,  or  if  he  wills  evil,  some  other  being  wills  good.^^  Hence  a 
power  that  personifies  the  opposing  will  exists,^"  and  since  God  is 
goodness,  the  evil  in  the  world  proceeds  through  the  will  of  the 
rival  spirit,  who  exists  independent  of  the  good  spirit. 

If  it  is  argued  that  Ormazd  has  created  evil  for  the  reason 
that  mankind  may  better  understand  and  appreciate  goodness ;  or 
again,  that  he  has  created  poverty,  pain,  and  death  that  human 
beings  may  better  understand  the  value  of  wealth,  health,  and 
life,  and  consequently  become  more  grateful  to  God,  it  is  as  un- 
reasonable as  saying  that  the  Deity  gives  poison  to  mankind  so 
that  they  may  better  understand  and  appreciate  the  value  of  the 
antidote. ^^  In  another  place,  however,  it  is  said  in  the  Pahlavi 
texts  that  Ormazd  allows  Ahriman,  the  father  of  evil,  to  com- 
mingle with  his  creation  for  an  allotted  period  for  the  experience 
and  training  of  mankind. ^^ 

The  all-wise  God  would  not  create  his  own  adversary. 
Omniscience  is  one  of  the  attributes  requisite  for  divinity ;  '^  and 
in  the  Pahlavi  period  Ormazd  is  always  spoken  of  as  omniscient.^* 
If  it  is  maintained  that  both  good  and  evil  proceed  from  Ormazd 
himself,  the  question  then  arises  why  he,  being  omniscient,  should 
have  foreseen  the  harm  that  would  be  caused  to  his  creation,  and 
yet  not  have  found  it  inexpedient  to  create,  through  his  own 
will,  a  perverse  creature  that  would  turn  out  to  be  his  adversary 
and  cause  him  perpetual  anxiety  and  sorrow. ^^  If  he  did  not 
foresee  the  evil  consequences,  he  is  not  omniscient.^**  If  he  created 
this  eternal  foe  to  man  for  the  sake  of  experiment,  without 
knowing  the  result,  then  such  a  being  is  making  experiments  at 
the  painful  cost  of  the  miseries  of  the  countless  generations  of 
mankind,  and  is  consequently  not  omniscient. ^^ 

Again  it  is  meaningless  for  the  wise  one  who  is  contented 
with  his  own  divinity  and  grandeur  to  have  produced  through 

"Sg.  164-167.  "Sg.  II.  13. 

"/&..  168-175.  "lb.,  12.  52. 

'"lb.,  176.  » lb.,  II.  93,  g^. 

"lb.,  II.  197-204.  "  lb.,  g. 

"Dk.,  vol.  10,  bk.  5.  7,  p.  8.  "lb.,  115-117. 


250 


EVIL 


his  own  knowledge  and  will  an  enemy  of  mankind,  who  causes 
them  misery  in  this  and  the  next  world."  A  wise  person  always 
acts  with  a  view  to  the  good  of  all,  and  does  not  contemplate 
evil.  Now  evil  abounds  in  the  world.  If  the  Lord  has  created 
Ahriman,  who  does  good  neither  to  him  nor  to  his  creatures, 
but  positive  harm  to  all,  then  this  creative  act  of  Ormazd  is 
unwise.^^  Again,  if  God  does  not  know  the  means  to  avert  evil, 
he  is  equally  unwise,^**  and  an  unwise  God  is  imperfect.^^  But 
Ormazd  is  perfect  in  wisdom,  and  knows  how  to  eradicate  evil,*^ 
which  he  has  not  created. 

Omnipotent  Ormazd  has  not  created  evil.  One  of  the  in- 
dispensable attributes  of  God  is  omnipotence ;  ^^  and  the  divinity 
of  the  Deity  without  this  quality  would  be  incomplete.^*  The 
independent  existence  of  a  rival  spirit,  which  the  theologians  of 
this  period  so  zealously  maintain,  is  in  no  way  considered  to 
diminish  the  power  and  grandeur  of  God.^^  Inasmuch  as  the 
ultimate  victory  rests  with  the  Good  Spirit,  and  goodness  is  to 
rout  evil  at  the  end  of  time,  the  omnipotence  of  Ormazd  is  not 
considered  to  be  impaired.  It  is  emphasized  in  Pahlavi  literature 
that  Ormazd,  who  is  omnipotent,^®  would  on  no  account  be  the 
author  of  evil.^^  If  he  desired  to  prevent  evil,  but  could  not  do 
so,  he  is  impotent.  The  omnipotent  being  must  be  capable  of 
performing  his  own  will,  for  otherwise  mankind  would  not  adore 
him  as  the  almighty  Lord.^^  If  he  is  thus  capable  of  performing 
his  will,  and  if  at  the  same  time  his  will  is  always  for  good  and 
never  for  evil,  it  should  come  to  pass  that  the  avoidance  of  sin, 
the  shunning  of  the  path  to  hell,  and  the  striving  to  be  worthy 
of  heaven  would  be  manifest  among  all  mankind  according  to 
God's  will.^^  But  this  is  not  the  case.*"  If  the  Deity  is  capable  of 
performing  his  will,  and  yet  does  not  do  it,  he  is  unmerciful  and 
of  inconstant  will." 

Again,  if  the  rival  spirit  did  not  exist,  and  if  evil  did  not 
originate  from  him,  the  omnipotent  creator  ought  to  have  created 
his  creatures  without  blemish.*^  His  mercifulness  and  omnis- 
science  would  have  demanded  this  from  him.*^ 


"Sg. 

II.  27-29. 

"/&., 

15,  16. 

"lb.. 

295-297. 

"/t., 

II.  330338. 

"  lb., 

33,  34- 

*''Ib., 

298. 

"  lb.. 

314. 

''lb., 

12.  52. 

*'Ib., 

299.  300, 

'^Ib., 

317. 

"  lb.. 

II.  312. 

"lb.. 

118. 

"  lb.. 

310. 

""  lb.. 

288-294. 

"lb., 

1 19-124. 

''  lb., 

II.  13. 

EVIL  251 

If  it  is  said  that  the  adversary  was  created  originally  good 
by  Ormazd,  from  whom  he  afterwards  revolted  and  became  evil, 
then  it  shows  that  the  adversary  possesses  a  more  powerful  will 
than  that  of  the  sacred  being,  since  in  that  event  the  power  of  evil 
is  thus  able  to  break  his  commandment  and  diffuse  more  harm  in 
the  world  than  the  good  of  the  sacred  being.^*  Furthermore, 
Ormazd,  as  the  almighty  being,  should  not  have  created  an 
opponent  who  in  the  long  run,  by  deluding  and  misleading  man- 
kind, threatened  to  become  triumphant  over  him.*°  In  addi- 
tion, as  the  omniscient  being,  the  Deity  should  have  foreseen 
the  consequences  and  not  have  produced  a  rebel  for  whose  ex- 
istence he  would  have  to  be  sorry.*®  Moreover,  the  Evil  Spirit 
should  not,  under  these  circumstances,  be  unreasonably  blamed, 
since  he  has  been  created  of  so  headstrong  a  will  by  God ;  *''  on 
the  contrary,  the  Good  Spirit  who  has  created  him  of  such  per- 
verse nature  should  be  held  accountable  for  the  mischief  that 
the  Evil  One  is  now  doing  in  the  world. *^ 

If  it  is  maintained  that  Ormazd  has  created  disease  and  mis- 
fortune to  give  an  opportunity  to  mankind — an  opportunity  to 
practise  the  virtue  of  mitigating  these  evils,  and  thus  to  be 
finally  rewarded  by  eternal  happiness — it  means  that  he  is  not 
actually  able  to  bestow  happiness  upon  the  virtuous,  except  by 
causing  distress  to  others.^''  Again,  to  say  that  he  will  give 
recompense  to  the  sick  and  needy,  who  have  undeservedly  suffered 
in  this  world,  would  reflect  upon  the  Good  Spirit ;  ^°  for  it  shows 
that  it  was  impossible  for  him  to  give  these  unfortunate  people 
happiness  in  heaven,  without  first  causing  them  misery  in  this 
world.^^  This  after-nobility  of  rewarding  after  harassing  does  no 
credit  to  the  Almighty  One.^^  gy^^  ^^^  argument  continues, 
Ormazd  has  neither  created  Ahriman  nor  his  evil. 

From  the  trend  of  his  argument  we  might  be  led  to  think 
tha4:  our  author  thus  prefers  to  limit  the  omnipotence  of  Ormazd 
rather  than  ascribe  to  him  the  authorship  of  evil.  But  his  con- 
tention is  that  inasmuch  as  Ahriman,  who  is  independent  in  his 
origin,  will  ultimately  bow  the  knee  before  Ormazd  and  perish 
at  his  hands,  the  omnipotence  of  the  Good  Spirit  may  be  consid- 
ered to  be  intact. 


*  Sg.  SI,  95-97. 

-/&., 

245-251- 

"  lb.,  149. 

*'Ib..  85-87. 

"75, 

257,  258. 

"  lb.,  150. 

"  lb.,  88^4. 

"  lb.. 

141-148. 

"lb.,  151-154. 

252  EVIL 

Ormazd,  the  sovereign  ruler,  would  not  harass  his  earthly 
subjects  by  the  creation  of  evil.  If  the  divine  being  who  is  the 
eternal  sovereign  ^^  keeps  out  distress,  oppression,  injustice  from 
the  world,  and  routs  the  enemies  that  threaten  the  peace  and 
security  of  mankind,  he  is  worthy  of  his  divinity,^*  but  if  he  rules 
as  a  tyrant  occasioning  eternal  distress  to  mankind,  he  is  un- 
worthy of  his  divinity.^^  His  title  to  divinity  further  demands 
that  he  cannot  both  be  a  good  and  a  bad  sovereign,  causing  happi- 
ness as  well  as  misery  unto  mankind,  for  that  would  make  him  of 
a  mixed  individuality.^^ 

Again,  he  could  not  produce  evil  to  injure  his  own  creatures, 
unless  he  ceases  to  be  their  friend  and  turns  out  their  enemy. ''^ 
But  the  creator  is  the  friend  of  creation  and  not  its  enemy.  He 
is  its  best  ruler.  Evil  is  introduced  into  his  earthly  kingdom 
by  an  infernal  sovereign  who  struggles  to  found  the  Kingdom 
of  Wickedness  on  earth. 

Unmerited  harm  could  not  emanate  from  a  just  God. 
Ormazd  is  just,  and  administers  justice  with  exactitude  unto  all. 
Now,  if  he  is  the  author  of  evil,  crime,  and  sin,  there  is  no 
justice  in  his  thus  creating  these  and  then  enjoining  that  man- 
kind shall  abstain  from  committing  them,  under  penalty  of  in- 
curring punishment.^*  Ormazd,  the  writer  continues,  is  the  em- 
l^lem  of  truth  and  justice  even  as  Ahriman  is  the  embodiment 
of  falsehood  and  injustice.  It  is,  therefore,  inconsistent  for  a 
true  and  just  being  to  say.  on  the  one  hand,  that  he  hates  sin 
and  sinners,  and  on  the  other  hand  to  produce  more  sin  and 
sinners  than  good  deeds  and  doers  of  good  deeds. ^'^  It  is  not 
justice,  moreover,  to  inflict  unlimited  punishment  for  a  limited 
sin,  and  to  cause  perpetual  pain  and  distress  to  his  creatures  for 
indulging  in  the  evil  which  he  has  himself  produced.®"  But 
Ormazd  is  the  embodiment  of  justice,  whereas  the  existence  of  evil 
is  a  glaring  injustice  to  innocent  humanity.  Hence  evil,  the  writer 
concludes,  is  the  creation  of  an  unjust  power,  that  is,  of  Ahriman. 

God,  the  embodiment  of  mercy,  could  not  inflict  evil  upon 
his  own  creatures.  One  of  the  essential  traits  of  Ormazd  is 
his  mercifulness."    If,  then,  he  is  merciful,  why  should  he  know- 

"' Sg.  12.  52.  "  Sg.  II.  109,  no,  125-132,  260-263. 

"/&.,  II.  17-19,  222,  227-232.        '^  lb.,  II.  30-33. 


"  lb.,  233-238.  '"  lb.,  12.  41-50. 

lb.,  225,  226,  239-244.  "lb.,   II.   13. 

lb.,  217-221,  252. 


EVIL  253 

ingly  permit  Ahriman  to  introduce  misery  and  harm  among  his 
own  creatures? ^2  Mankind,  even  with  their  Httle  knowledge, 
w^ould  never,  of  their  own  accord,  allow  the  lion,  the  wolf,  and 
other  noxious  creatures  in  among  their  young  ones ;  why  has  the 
Lord,  who  is  called  merciful,  let  in  Ahriman  and  his  ribald  crew 
of  demons  upon  his  own  creation. "^^  If  he  is  capable  of  re- 
moving evil  and  yet  does  not  do  so,  but,  on  the  contrary,  curses 
those  who  adhere  to  evil  and  casts  them  away  for  punishment  in 
hell,  he  is  not  merciful.*^^  Where  is  his  divine  mercy  in  fathering 
such  a  world  of  woe  and  sorrow? 

Again,  as  a  wise  being  Ormazd  acts  for  some  purpose  when  he 
creates  the  universe,  for  to  act  without  a  purpose  is  not  worthy 
of  the  all-wise  lord."^  If  he  has,  then,  created  the  world  for  his 
own  pleasure  and  for  the  happiness  of  mankind,  as  religion  claims, 
why  should  he  ever  indulge  in  their  slaughter  and  devastation?®^ 
But  this  is  not  true,  for  Ormazd  is  merciful  and  he  does  not 
slaughter,  nor  devastate,  nor  wish  evil  to  his  creatures ;  evil  is, 
therefore,  not  of  his  making,  but  of  some  other  merciless  being.®^ 
Such  is  the  view  maintained  in  the  treatise. 

It  is  deemed  futile  to  attempt  to  resolve  Ahriman  into  a 
symbolic  personification  of  man's  evil  nature.  To  those  who 
put  forth  the  theory  that  evil  springs  from  the  nature  of  man, 
our  author  asks  whether  it  had  its  origin  before  the  creation  of 
mankind  or  at  the  same  time  with  man.*''^  If  evil  arose  before 
man,  he  says,  it  must  either  have  been  created  by  God,  or  it  had 
its  independent  existence. "^^  If  it  arose  after  mankind  through 
man's  own  making,  that  is,  .through  the  freedom  of  his  own  will, 
it  means  that  man  originated  it  in  defiance  of  the  imperfect  will 
of  his  own  creator.'^"  This  is  setting  up  the  will  of  man  in 
opposition  to  the  will  of  Ormazd.  Now  the  sinners  among 
mankind  are  punished  by  Ormazd.  His  omnipotence  and  merci- 
fulness demand  that  he  should  not  have  thus  allowed  men  to  sin, 
when  he  wanted  to  punish  them  afterwards  for  having  com- 
mitted sin.'^^  If  evil  originates  with  mankind,  because  mankind 
are  created  by  God,  then  the  creator  is  responsible  for  the  pro- 
duction of  evil.''^ 

It  is  further  explained,  in  the  same  Pahlavi  tractate,  that  if 


•^Sg.   II,  8. 

"  lb.. 

106-108. 

'"lb.. 

183-191. 

'^  lb.,   II.    111-114. 

"  lb.. 

12.  56. 

"  lb.. 

192-196. 

'*  lb.,  121-124,  300. 

"  lb.. 

II.    177-179- 

''lb.. 

258. 

"lb.,  103-105. 

"lb., 

180-182. 

254  EVIL 

from  outward  appearance  it  seems  that  good  and  evil  alike 
spring  from  mankind  it  is  because  mankind  are  not  perfect  in 
goodness.^^  As  sickness  and  death  are  due  to  the  bodily  imper- 
fection of  man,  so  does  evil  originate  owing  to  his  moral  im- 
perfection/* The  two  competing  propensities  existing  in  human 
nature  cause  these  imperfections."^ 

Whence  this  evil  propensity  in  the  nature  of  man?  Does  it 
originate  with  him?  Does  man  load  the  infirmities  of  the  flesh 
and  the  iniquities  of  his  moral  nature  on  the  back  of  Ahriman 
and  proclaim  him  as  the  source  of  all  evil?  If  so,  why  circum- 
scribe Ormazd's  greatness  by  postulating  this  imaginary  creature  ? 
But  the  general  verdict  of  the  Pahlavi  writers  is  that  evil  is 
primeval  in  its  origin ;  it  is  not  relative,  nor  did  man  bring  it  into 
existence.  It  is  enhanced  when  the  flesh  triumphs  over  the  spirit, 
but  it  does  not  originate  with  the  flesh.  The  father  of  evil  is  as 
real  a  personality  as  the  father  of  goodness.  We  shall  now 
peruse  the  life-story  of  this  Prince  of  Darkness  as  narrated  in 
the  Pahlavi  works. 

Ahriman 

The  primeval  source  of  evil.  If  evil  exists  in  reality,  and  is 
neither  produced  by  Ormazd  nor  by  man,  then  the  only  alterna- 
tive is  that  it  must  have  originated  from  an  independent  source. 
And  so  it  is.  Ahriman,  or  the  Evil  Spirit,  called  in  Pahlavi 
Gana  Menu  (possibly  to  be  read  as  Anrak  Menu,  from  Av. 
Angra  Mainyu),  is  its  originator.  As  we  have  already  seen  in 
the  Pahlavi  writings,  man  does  not  simply  objectify  the  basest 
and  vilest  in  his  own  nature  under  the  name  of  Ahriman ;  the 
rival  spirit  is  a  personality.  i_He  is  an  independent  being,  and  is 
co-existent  with  Ormazd.'^^ )  He  abode  from  eternity  in  the  abyss 
of  endless  darkness,'^  and  rushed  into  the  world  at  the  beginning  of 
creation  to  work  for  its  destruction,  as  he  constantly  wages  war 
against  Ormazd  and  the  good  creation.'^®  He  is  described  as 
dwelling  eternally  in  darkness  and  gloom ;  and  as  wholly  evil 
without  goodness,^^  as  the  prime  source  of  evil  in  the  world,^"^ 
and  as  the  producer  of  sin.^^    Though  it  is  possible  for  Ormazd 

"Sg.  8.  117,  118.  "Dk.,  vol.  10,  bk.  5.  4.  P-  6. 

^*  lb.,  1 19-122.  "Zsp.  I.  17;  Dd.  37.  28;  Sd.  62.  3. 

"  lb.,  123.  *»  Dk.,  vol.  5,  pp.  324,  325. 

"  Dd.  37.  21,  26.  "  Dk.,  vol.  II,  bk.  6.  loi,  p.  16. 

"  Bd.  I.  3.  9. 


EVIL  255 

to  drive  him  out  of  the  worid,  it  is  not  thought  necessary  to  do 
so  now  until  the  end  of  time,  when  Ormazd  has  determined  his 
final  defeat.^- 

Ahriman  is  a  spirit.  As  the  very  name  of  the  arch-fiend  in- 
dicates, he  is  a  spirit,  and  as  such  can  be  thought  of  in  the  mind, 
but  cannot  be  seen  by  the  eye  or  grasped  by  the  hand.  Having 
no  material  existence,  even  the  wicked  souls,  who  are  domiciled 
with  him  in  hell,  can  only  understand  his  nature  but  cannot  see 
him.^^  The  sainted  priest  Viraf,  however,  in  his  apocalyptic 
journey  to  hell  sees  him  in  the  inferno.^*  In.  the  beginning  of 
creation  he  sprang  like  a  snake  from  the  sky  to  the  earth, *^  and 
rushed  upon  the  entire  creation  like  a  fly.***^  In  one  Pahlavi  pas- 
sage he  is  mentioned  as  possessing  the  body  of  a  lizard,^^  though 
he  could  for  his  vile  purposes  assume  the  pleasing  shape  of  a 
young  man,  as  noted  in  the  same  connection.  In  allegorical 
references  he  is  spoken  of  as  assuming  the  form  of  a  horse  when 
subjugated  by  Tahmuras.®^ 

Ahriman  has  backward  knowledge.  When  the  Evil  Spirit 
defies  Ormazd,  the  latter  reminds  him  that  he  is  not  omniscient ;  ^'^ 
and  does  not,  therefore,  foresee  his  own  final  defeat.^"  In  fact  he 
has  only  after-knowledge,  and  knows  no  event  that  is  to  come. 
He  was  not  even  aware  of  the  existence  of  Ormazd,  until  he 
arose  from  the  abyss ;  ^^  thus,  though  cunning,  he  is  totally  igno- 
rant and  blind.^-  He  cannot  attain  to  any  knowledge  pertaining 
to  the  Good  Spirit,^^  and  does  not  make  any  preparations  to  avert 
his  coming  downfall.^*  What  scanty  knowledge  he  possesses  is 
evil  and  he  will  see  the  consequences  of  his  ignorance  at  the  time 
of  Renovation.^^  He  is  unobservant,  stupid,^*'  and  ill-informed.^^ 
He  is  the  after-thinker.  Ignorance  is  the  parent  of  many  evils, 
and  Ahriman  is  the  very  personification  of  it. 

As  the  arch-enemy  of  Ormazd,  Ahriman  swears  vengeance 

upon  the  good  creation.    The  Evil  Spirit  is  the  avowed  enemy 

of  the  creatures  of  Ormazd.''^    Being  of  malicious  nature,^^  and  a 

"Dk.,  vol.  10,  bk.  5.  5,          "  Bd.  I.  9;  Zsp.  i.  2. 

6,  pp.  6,  7.  "Bd.  I.  19;  Dk.,  vol.  8,  p.  445;  Gs.  122. 

"'  Dd.  19.  I,  2,  5.  "  Dk.,  vol.  6,  p.  416. 

«"  AV.   100.  I.  "  Dk.,  vol.  7,  p.  462. 

"Bd.  3-  11;  Zsp.  2.  3.          "Dk.,  vol.  2,  p.  108. 

"  Bd.  3.  14.  "  Bd.  I.  19. 

"Bd.  3.  9;  28.  I.  ''Dk.,  vol.  5,  p.  324. 

''  Mkh.  27.  21,  22.  »'  Dd.  3.  7;  Dk.,  vol.  4,  pp.  208,  270;  Gs. 

"  Bd.  I.  16.  127. 

""  Dk.,  vol.  4.  P-  258.  "  Bd.  I.  10;  Dd.  37.  8,  10;  Mkh.  10.  5,  10. 


256  EVIL 

blemish-giver,^""  he  ever  wishes  evil  to  all.^"^  As  the  enemy  of 
mankind,  he  ever  strives  to  make  man  unhappy ;  "^  he  is  filled, 
in  fact,  with  rancour  against  the  entire  creation ;  he  is  bent  upon 
its  destruction  and  never  thinks,  speaks,  or  does  anything  but 
harm  to  mankind.^"^  Ormazd  saw  through  his  omniscience  that 
the  Evil  Spirit  would  find  scope  for  his  work  up  to  the  time  that 
the  imperfections  of  the  world  were  removed,  and  evil  became 
eradicated.  He  therefore  proposed  peace  to  Ahriman,  asking 
him  to  bring  help  unto  the  good  creatures,  and  offering  to  make 
him  in  return  immortal,  undecaying,  hungerless,  and  thirstless.^"* 
The  Evil  Spirit  thought  that  it  was  helplessness  and  weakness  on 
the  part  of  Ormazd  that  had  thus  compelled  him  to  proffer  peace, 
and  rejected  the  divine  offer.^"'^  He  then  defiantly  answered  the 
Good  Spirit  that  not  only  would  he  never  bring  help  and  praise 
unto  the  good  creation,  but  he  would  ever  seek  to  destroy  it  and 
force  the  creatures  into  disaffection  to  Ormazd  and  affection  for 
himself.""  Ever  since  this  first  dispute  with  the  Deity,  Ahriman 
has  firmly  adhered  to  his  resolve,  and  is  so  absorbed  in  contriving 
the  ruin  of  his  rival's  creatures  that  he  has  never  rested  at 
ease  since  creation  began.^"''  He  is  bent  upon  perverting  creatures 
from  their  own  nature,  in  order,  if  possible,  to  prevent  Ormazd 
from  bringing  about  the  resurrection  and  the  renovation  of  the 
world  and  restoring  his  creatures.^"®  Having  created  evil  for 
the  ruin  of  the  good  creation,  he  strives  to  wrest  the  supremacy 
from  the  hands  of  Ormazd,""  for  the  idea  of  revenge  eats  like 
a  canker  into  his  heart.  A  righteous  person  of  firm  resolve  can 
put  him  to  flight,  for  he  is  a  coward,  just  as  the  prophet  Zoroaster 
routed  him.  In  the  beginning  of  creation  when  Ahriman  first 
saw  the  angels  and  their  prowess  he  fled  precipitately  back  to 
the  darkness  of  hell ;  ^^°  when  next  he  beheld  Ormazd's  creation, 
he  became  languid,  and  when  he  learnt  Ormazd's  design  of  reno- 
vation he  was  stupefied,  and  fell  on  his  knees ;  ^^^  yet  he  remained 

""  Dk.,  vol.  5,  pp.  324,  325 ;  vol.  6,  p.  421 ;  vol.  7,  P-  445- 
"'Bd.  1.8;  Mkh.  8.  23;  Sg.  3.  5. 
'"=  Dk.,  vol.  7,  p.  461. 
»"  Bd.  28.  2. 

Bd.  I.  13. 

Bd.  I.  15;  Dk.,  vol.  8,  pp.  484,  485. 

Bd.  I.  14;  Zsp.  1.  6,  8;  Sg.  4.  12. 

Bd.  28.  3- 

Sg.  12.  72-74. 


104 


108 

""  Bd.  28.  I. 
"»Bd.  6.  I. 
"'Dk.,  vol.  II,  bk.  6.  258,  p.  100. 


EVIL  257 

resolute  in  his  wicked  purpose  and  has  never  ceased  to  vent  his 
rage  upon  humanity. 

When  Ahriman  contemplates  any  harm  to  Ormazd,  it  recoils 
upon  himself,  and  proves  of  advantage  to  his  adversary;  but  v^hen 
Ormazd  does  anything  for  his  own  advantage,  it  turns  out  of 
advantage  to  himself,  and  in  harm  to  Ahriman."^  He  is  able  to 
mar  the  doings  of  Ormazd,  but  in  only  so  far  as  it  does  not 
ultimately  turn  out  for  harm  to  Ormazd,  for  the  final  victory 
rests  with  Ormazd.^^^  It  is  said  that  Ormazd  had  created  Yim, 
Faridun,  and  Kaus  immortal,  but  that  Ahriman  rendered  them 
mortal ;  ^^*  yet  when  Ahriman  contrived  to  make  the  monstrous 
Zohak,  the  wicked  Afrasiab,  and  the  accursed  Sikandar  im- 
mortal, Ormazd  did  not  permit  him  to  do  it,  as  that  would  have 
meant  incalculable  harm  to  the  good  creation."^ 

Ahriman  lures  man  to  destruction  by  deceit.  He  is  the 
arch-deceiver,^^''  corrupting  man's  nature,  and  beguiling  him  into 
wickedness  and  sin."^  He  lurks  about  to  overtake  man  in  his 
unguarded  moments,  and  has  stationed  his  sentinels  for  the  pur- 
pose. Woe  unto  the  man  who  is  found  weak  in  the  moment  of 
temptation.  Ahriman  desires  that  man  shall  not  actually  recog- 
nize him,  for  if  he  once  appraised  the  Evil  Spirit  at  his  true  value, 
he  would  not  follow  him  on  the  path  of  Wickedness."^  Ahriman 
seduces  man  to  give  up  the  religion  of  Ormazd  and  embrace  his 
evil  faith,  and  exults  when  this  object  is  achieved."''  Inasmuch 
as  he  does  not  see  that  his  work  of  deception  will  finally  bring 
his  own  ruin,  he  deceives  himself.^-" 

Ahriman  produces  seductive  demons  to  pervert  mankind. 
The  first  creation  of  Ahriman  was  Falsehood.^^^  Afterwards  he 
produced  six  chief  demons,  Akoman,  Indar,  Sovar,  Nakahed, 
Tairev,  Zairich  as  adversaries  to  the  six  archangels  of  Ormazd.^-^ 
Besides  this  he  produced  many  demons  and  fiends.^-^     Mankind 

"*  Dd.  94.  8 ;  Dk,  vol.  10,  bk.  6.  12,  p.  4. 

""  Mkh.  8.  24-26. 

"*  Mkh.  8.  27,  28. 

"°  Mkh.  8.  29,  30. 

"'  Dk.,  vol.  I,  p.  22. 

"'  Dd.  37.  8;  Mkh.  45.  8;  Dk.,  vol.  8.  p.  462;  vol.  9,  p.  624. 

""  Bd.  28.  40;  Mkh.  40.  26,  27;  Dk.,  vol.  10,  bk.  6.  31,  p.  10. 

"*  Bd.  28.  4-6. 

'"  Dk.,  vol.  13.  bk.  6.  E.  38.  p.  16. 

^"  Bd.  I.  24. 

"'  Bd.  I.  24,  27. 

"=Bd.  I.  10. 


258  EVIL 

formerly  did  not  commit  crime,^-*  and  there  was  no  sin,^-^  but 
Ahriman  implanted  various  vices  in  man's  nature  as  the  enemies 
of  the  soul;  among  such  are  avarice,  covetousness,  anger,  jeal- 
ousy, stubbornness,  lust,  enmity,  idleness,  apostasy,  slander,  igno- 
rance, malice,  stinginess,  hatred,  strife,  and  many  other  seductions 
that  mislead  men.^'®  Ahriman  meditates  upon  nothing  but  false- 
hood, wrath,  malice,  and  discord ; '-'  and  especially  does  he  seek 
to  conceal  from  man  the  reward  of  good  deeds  and  the  retribution 
of  evil  deeds,  thus  leading  human  creatures  to  wickedness  and 
sin."^  In  designing  man's  ruin  Ahriman  does  not  consider  his 
triumph  over  him  complete  unless  he  succeeds  in  effecting  his 
spiritual  destruction;  nor  does  he  deem  it  a  victory  merely  to 
deprive  a  man  of  his  life  and  wife,  child,  and  fortune;  but  he 
must  succeed  in  seducing  his  soul.^^^  Nothing  satiates  his  voracity 
so  much  as  the  capture  of  a  human  soul. 

Ahriman  introduces  disease  and  death  into  the  world. 
When  Ahriman  first  entered  the  world,  he  plagued  mankind,  and 
introduced  death  among  the  living  beings ;  "°  thus  misery  and 
affliction  entered  the  world  through  him.^^^  And  all  the  ills 
human  flesh  is  heir  to  are  from  him.  He  smote  the  progenitor 
of  animals  and  made  the  primeval  man  mortal."-  Disease,  de- 
struction, and  death  are  identified  with  Ahriman,  and  form  his 
chief  work.^^^ 

Ahriman  infests  the  earth  with  noxious  creatures.  One  of 
the  many  malicious  acts  of  Ahriman,  to  thwart  the  creation  of 
Ormazd,  is  his  creation  of  biting  and  venomous  creatures,  such  as 
the  snake,  scorpion,  frog,  lizard,  and  many  others,  in  so  great 
a  number  that  the  noxious  creatures  did  not  leave  an  empty  space 
on  earth  to  the  size  of  the  point  of  a  needle."*  Hence  killing 
these  noxious  creatures  and  extirpating  their  burrows  are  mer- 
itorious deeds. ^^^ 

"*  Mkh.  13.  6. 
"°  Dk.,  vol.  6,  p.  421. 

""  Bd.  3-  17;  Dd.  37-  53,  54;  Dk-,  vol.  6,  p.  354;  vol.  8,  p.  469;  vol.  10, 
bk.  5.  4.  p.  6;  Gs.  10,  11. 
"'  Mkh.  ID.  5. 
^"'  Mkh.  13.  7-10. 
^"  Mkh.  46.  4,  5- 

""Bd.  3.  17;  Dd.  37.  72,  81;  Dk.,  vol.  2,  pp.  92,  93. 
"^  Mkh.  37.  10;  42.  6,  7. 
"="  Dd.  37-  46,  82. 

"'  Zsp.  5.  4;  Dk.,  vol.  4,  PP-  233,  238;  vol.  12,  bk.  6.  308,  p.  25. 
"-Bd.  3-  15:  Zsp.  2.9- 
""  SIS.  20.  5;  Mkh.  5.  8;  Sd.  43.  i-io;  Dk.,  vol.  12,  bk.  6.  317,  p.  29. 


EVIL  259 

Ahriman  disfigures  Ormazd's  creation.  Smoke  and  dark- 
ness were  mingled  with  fire  by  the  Evil  Spirit  ;^^''  the  trees  that 
grew  on  the  earth  before  the  appearance  of  Ahriman  had  neither 
thorns,  nor  rough  bark,  nor  was  poison  mixed  with  any  of  their 
species.  It  was  Ahriman  who  introduced  these  into  vegetation, 
also  blight  to  wither  it.^^^  Thus  he  brings  disfigurement  upon  the 
creatures  of  Ormazd,^^^  and  exultingly  cries  out  that  everything 
of  Ormazd  has  been  assailed  by  him  and  spoiled.^^^  Over  against 
each  one  of  Ormazd's  good  creations  there  is  balanced  an  evil  one 
of  Ahriman. 

The  end  of  Ahriman.  One  of  the  essential  proofs  of  Ahri- 
man's  inequality  with  Ormazd  is  that  he  is  not  eternal.  As  has 
been  noted  above,  although  he  was  co-eval  and  co-equal  with 
Ormazd,  he  is  not  co-eternal,  because  there  will  be  a  time  when 
he  will  cease  to  exist.^*°  Ormazd  and  Ahriman  are  therefore 
not  actually  balanced  equally  against  each  other.  As  mankind 
advances  in  righteousness,  and  succeeds  in  weakening  the  do- 
minion of  wickedness,  Ahriman  will  be  baffled  in  his  vile  attempts 
to  tempt  men  to  the  wicked  path."^  Ahriman  will  then  find 
his  resources  exhausted  and  will  become  impotent  and  con- 
founded.^*^ Being  completely  overpowered,"^  and  broken,"*  pre- 
dominating no  longer,"^  he  will  become  afflicted  and  miserable."" 
He  will  bow  his  unwilling  knees  to  the  divine  authority.  Thus 
baffled,  he  will  flee  into  darkness  and  be  fettered  in  hell  in  per- 
petual sorrow."^  We  are  informed  in  another  place  that  when  he 
is  thus  defeated,  he  will  rush  back  to  hell,"^  and  disappear."^ 
Still  other  passages  state  that  he  will  be  repulsed  and  slain. ^^° 
Ahriman  exists  in  the  world  so  long  as  he  can  find  his  lodgment 
even  in  one  man  in  the  world,  but  when,  owing  to  the  goodness  of 

"«  Bd.  3.  24;  Zsp.  2.  II. 

"'  Bd.  3.  16;  2-].  I. 

"*  Zsp.  4.  10. 

"»  Zsp.  4.  3. 

^^o  Bd.  I.  3;  Gs.  129;  Dk.,  vol.  12,  bk.  6.  278,  p.  7. 

"•  Dk.,  vol.  I,  p.  22. 

"^Dd.  Z7.  15,  20,  64;  Mkh.  8.  13;  Gs.  158. 

"'  Dk.,  vol.  5,  pp.  314,  324. 

"*  Dk.,  vol.  7,  p.  458. 

"'  Dd.  7-  3. 

"°  Dk.,  vol.  5,  p.  346;  vol.  7,  p.  461 ;  Gs.  157. 

"'  Dk.,  vol.  3-  p.  150. 

"'  Dk.,  vol.  9,  pp.  441,  486. 

""  Dd.  2>T.  71,  122:  Dk.,  vol.  8,  pp.  436,  445;  Jsp.,  p.  109. 

"°  Dk.,  vol.  9,  p.  627;  Jsp.,  p.  120. 


26o  EVIL 

men,   he   will   be   completely   cast  out   from   human  bodies,   he 
will  be  exterminated.^^^    He  will  enter  into  nothingness. ^^^ 

The  final  disappearance  cf  evil  from  the  world.  With  the 
disappearance  of  the  Father  of  Evil,  goodness  will  completely 
rout  evil.^^^  The  great  conflict  between  good  and  evil  will 
eventually  end  in  perfecting  good  and  in  eliminating  evil.^^* 
Moral  and  physical  imperfections  will  vanish;  for  vice  and  im- 
piety, wickedness  and  sin,  demons  and  fiends,  disease  and  death 
W'ill  be  no  more.^^^  The  dual  nature  of  the  creatures  of  good  and 
evil  will  be  supplanted  by  the  single  characteristic  of  goodness. 
The  evil  creatures  will  perish.^^° 

Divs 

The  emissaries  of  Ahriman.  There  are  six  arch-fiends  cre- 
ated by  Ahriman  in  exact  opposition  to  the  archangels ;  and  there 
are  also  other  minor  demons  as  their  evil  confederates. ^^^  They 
love  evil  for  its  own  sake.  Hell  is  the  specific  habitat  assigned  to 
them,  and  from  there  they  rush  to  the  summit  of  Mount  Arezur  to 
hold  their  infernal  council. ^^*  The  north  is  believed  to  be  the 
region  of  Ahriman  and  demons,  just  as  the  south  is  that  of 
Ormazd  and  angels;  and  darkness  is  the  steadfast  quality  of 
this  fiendish  crew.^^^ 

Their  work.  The  diabolical  host  woYks  for  procuring  success 
for  Ahriman.  They  will  do  this  up  to  the  end  of  the  world.^^° 
The  strongest  and  most  triumphant  of  their  weapons  against  man 
is  deceit ;  "^  they  lead  man  to  sin  through  it."^  Every  demon  is 
an  instigator  of  some  evil;  on  that  account,  man  should  always 
entertain  an  abhorrence  for  the  demons.  He  should  array  him- 
self on  the  side  of  the  angels,  and  join  in  the  fight  against  the 
demons,  who  always  contemplate  harm  to  man.^^^     When  they 

"  Dk.,  vol.  8,  p.  436;  vol.  II,  bk.  6.  264,  p.  102. 

"  Dd.  37.  59,  114;  Mkh.  57.  6;  Dk.,  vol.  12,  bk.  6.  297,  p.  13. 

"  Dk.,  vol.  5,  p.  326. 

"  Dd.  37.  122. 

"  Dd.  37.  120,  121 ;  Mkh.  8.  14,  15. 

"  Bd.  I.  7. 

"  Bd.  28.  12. 

"  Dd.  33.  3.  5. 

"  Dd.  37.  85. 

•»  Dd.  37.  59. 

"  lb.,  87. 

"  Dk.,  vol.  2,  p.  67. 

Dk.,  vol.  12,  bk.  6.  307,  p.  24. 


EVIL  261 

have  sway  over  man's  doings,  righteousness  is  arrested  and 
wickedness  thrives/*'*  for  man  becomes  sinful  and  wicked  in  their 
company.^"^  They  take  up  their  abode  in  him  when  his  innate 
wisdom  forsakes  him ;  ^""^  when  once  possessed  by  demons,  he  is 
possessed  by  evil  knowledge.^'^^  The  demons  seize  upon  and 
carry  off  one-third  of  the  wisdom  and  glory  of  that  man  who 
eats  in  the  dark  without  washing  his  hands.^**^  Procrastination 
on  the  part  of  man  also  helps  the  demons ;  for  example,  when  a 
man  is  in  the  habit  of  postponing  some  good  work  from  day  to 
day,  until  he  is  overtaken  by  death,  and  the  good  deed  remains 
unaccomplished,  the  demons  are  greatly  rejoiced.^**"  Persons 
who  associate  with  the  wicked  in  this  world  get  demons  for  their 
companions  in  the  next.^^°  The  fire  of  Ormazd  puts  the  demons 
to  flight;  for,  when  a  large  number  of  them  rushed  to  destroy 
the  child  Zoroaster  at  his  birth,  they  could  not  harm  him  owing 
to  the  presence  of  the  fire."^  Zoroaster  brought  them  all  to  his 
feet,  and  forced  them  to  rush  headlong  into  the  jaws  of  hell. 
The  demons  will  live  so  long  as  man  will  have  something  of  the 
demon  in  him.  When  righteousness  at  last  shall  triumph  in 
the  world,  and  the  world  of  humanity  reach  perfection  at  the 
final  renovation,  the  demons  will  sink  into  their  native  dark- 
ness, and  perish  forever.^^^ 

Akoman 

Ahriman's  premier.  As  Vohuman  is  the  first  celestial  being 
in  the  good  creation,  so  Akoman,  '  Evil  Mind,'  ranks  first  among 
the  evil  creatures.  Ahriman  first  produced  Falsehood  and  after 
that  Akoman,^"  as  a  consequence  of  which  they  often  work  in 
concert.^"*  Still  another  text  speaks  of  Akoman  and  Varun  as 
created  together.^"  Akoman  came  out  from  the  dark  world  of 
Ahriman ;  ^^^  and  of  all  the  fiends  this  demon  of  perversion  is 
most  to  be  dreaded.^'''^ 

His  attempt  to  enter  the  mind  of  the  prophet  Zaratusht 
when  a  child  to  pervert  it  is  frustrated  by  Vohuman.    When 


"-  Dk.,  vol.  2,  p.  68. 

"»  SIS. 

10.  4; 

12.  II. 

"»  Dk.,  vol.  3,  pp.  166,  167;  vol. 

"'  Dd. 

37.  20. 

7,  P-  459- 

"'  Bd. 

I.  24. 

"«  Dk.,  vol.  3,  p.  159. 

"-  Dd. 

37-  53- 

"'  Dk..  vol.  3,  p.  166. 

"•  Dk., 

vol.  3, 

pp.  158,  159. 

"'  SIS.  9.  8. 

"•  Bd. 

I.  27. 

""Dk.,  vol.  II,  bk.  6.  89,  p.  3. 

"'  Dk., 

vol.  9, 

p.  625. 

^'"  Dk.,  vol.   II,  bk.  6.  133,  p.  39. 

262  EVIL 

Ahriman  learnt  of  the  birth  of  Zaratusht,  who  was  to  be  a  sure 
weapon  of  destruction  against  the  Kingdom  of  Wickedness,  he 
sent  Akoman  with  instructions  to  enter  the  infant's  mind  deceit- 
fully and  pervert  it.^^*  The  fiend  approached  the  house  in  which 
Zaratusht  was  born  and  contemplated  entering  by  the  door.^'^^ 
But  being  as  stupid  and  ignorant  as  his  father  he  was  easily  de- 
feated by  his  own  weapon  of  deceit  being  turned  against  him. 
Vohuman,  who  had  chased  him  to  the  spot,  schemingly  turned 
back  and  asked  him  to  enter  the  house.  Akoman  thought  that  as 
his  rival  was  leaving  the  place,  his  own  work  was  finished,  and 
consequently  returned  without  accomplishing  anything.^^''  Ako- 
man, moreover,  is  generally  said  to  frighten  children  at  their 
birth  with  the  ghastly  picture  of  their  sufferings  at  the  Renova- 
tion, and  this  is  given  as  a  reason  why  children  cry  at  birth. ^^^ 

Evil  thoughts  in  man  come  from  Akoman.  In  opposition  to 
Vohuman,  Akoman  gives  evil  thoughts  to  men  and  causes  dis- 
cord.^^^  It  is  owing  to  those  evil  thoughts  of  his  that  man  becomes 
wicked. ^^^  Man  has  to  purge  himself  of  vicious  thoughts.  Un- 
less he  does  this,  he  finds  himself  driven  hither  and  thither  like 
a  shuttlecock,  influenced  now  by  Vohuman,  now  by  Akoman.  The 
man  whose  will  is  ruled  by  Akoman  fails  to  discriminate  between 
good  and  evil,^^*  for  the  friendship  of  Akoman  makes  one 
vicious, ^^^  and  he  who  entertains  Akoman  as  his  guest  turns 
out  to  be  wicked.^®^  Such  a  man  courts  spiritual  destruction.^^^ 
When  Akoman  prevails  over  Vohuman  in  the  mind  of  a  man, 
his  intelligence  becomes  blunted  and  he  loses  greatness  in  both 
tlie  worlds,^^^  inasmuch  as  righteousness  flees  from  him  and  he 
is  steeped  in  sin.^^^  He  is  even  spoken  of  as  introducing  physical 
evil  in  the  world, ^^°  even  as  he  brings  evil  knowledge  of  religion 
to  man's  mind,^.^^  and  makes  him  miserable.^**^ 

Druj 
The  change  wrought  in  the  conception  of  her  work.    This 
personification  of  wickedness  and  deceit  has  by  this  time  lost  her 


"^  Zsp.  14.  8. 

"»  Dk.,  vol.  6,  p.  357. 

""  Zsp.  14.  9. 

""  Dk.,  vol.  10,  bk.  6.  78,  p.  21 ;  87, 

""  Zsp.  14.  10, 

II. 

p.  25;  vol.  II,  bk.  6.  193,  p.  69. 

"»  Dk.,  vol.  8, 

p.  439- 

»"  Dk.,  vol.  6,  p.  410. 

"*  Bd.  28.  7. 

"*  Dk.,  vol.  I,  p.  28;  vol.  3,  p.  152. 

"^  Dk.,  SBE., 

vol.  2,7, 

bk.  9.  69. 

"»  Dk.,  vol.  I,  p.  28. 

21,  p.  388. 

"»Dk.,  vol.  6,  p.  411. 

"*  Dk.,  SEE., 

vol.  37, 

bk.  9.  30. 

"'  Dk.,  vol.  6,  p.  414. 

8,  p.  243. 

"="  Dk.,  vol.  8,  p.  466. 

EVIL  263 

distinctive  individuality,  and  consequently  she  no  longer  remains 
an  exclusive  rival  of  Artavahisht,  or  Best  Righteousness.  In 
fact  her  name  is  not  mentioned  as  Ahriman's  counter-creation 
against  Artavahisht.  Indar,  as  we  shall  see  in  the  sequel,  usurps 
her  place  as  Artavahisht's  recognized  adversary.  Druj  no  longer 
in  the  Pahlavi  period  stands  exclusively  as  the  class  designation 
of  the  female  demons,  which  in  earlier  times  was  her  chief  char- 
acteristic. The  term  is  at  times  promiscuously  applied  to  male 
and  female  demons  alike;  in  fact  it  now  designates  demon  in 
general.  Ahriman  himself  is  most  frequently  termed  Druj ;  and 
several  demons  are  simultaneously  termed  divs  as  well  as  drujes 
in  one  and  the  same  text."^'  The  evil  passions  of  man  are  per- 
sonified as  drujes.^^*  These  abide  in  man  to  pervert  his  nature,^"^ 
for  Ahriman  has  created  the  drujes  ;^^^  he  is  their  leader,"^  and 
is  himself  the  arch-druj. 

Druj's  work.  The  wicked  deeds  of  man  further  the  evil  power 
of  Druj  in  the  world.  When  man  leaves  the  blessed  company  of 
Ormazd,  he  is  easily  overpowered  by  her,^^®  who  makes  his  life 
miserable  and  full  of  blemish.^^^  So  long  as  he  remains  under 
her  damaging  influence,  he  cannot  work  on  behalf  of  his  creator.^**" 
Druj  Nasu,  the  embodiment  of  pollution,  performs  her  work  of 
defilement.^*^^ 

What  puts  her  to  flight?  Recital  of  the  holy  spells,  the 
heartfelt  expiation  on  the  part  of  the  sinner,  and  the  performance 
of  righteous  deeds  will  drive  Druj  out  of  man,^°-  she  flees  far 
from  a  man  of  religious  inclination.-"^  It  is  the  duty  of  man, 
therefore,  to  drive  away  the  various  drujes  that  may  surround 
him.^"*  Ormazd  has  endowed  him  with  the  knowledge  whereby 
to  rout  them,-°^  and  has  given  him  strength  commensurate  with 
his  needs.  The  angels  help  to  drive  out  Druj  from  the  creation, 
an  act  that  will  contribute  to  furthering  the  work  of  the  Renova- 

"'  Bd.  28.  II,  13,  14,  20,  33. 

"*  Mkh.  41.  8-1 1. 

""  Dd.  94-  I. 

"«  Bd.  I.  10. 

*"  Dk.,  vol.  7,  P-  458. 

"'  Dk.,  vol.  7,  P-  496.  . 

""  Dk.,  vol.  8,  p.  475. 

'""  Dk.,  vol.  8,  p.  473- 

"*  Dd.  17.  7,  8. 

'"^  Dk.,  vol.  I,  p.  5;  vol.  12,  bk.  6.  315,  pp.  27,  28. 

""'  Dk.,  vol.  2,  p.  no;  vol.  6,  p.  363. 

""*  Dk.,  vol.  II,  bk.  6.  130,  pp.  36,  37;  SBE.,  47,  bk.  7.  i.  6,  p.  5. 

'"  Dk.,  vol.  4,  pp.  245,  269. 


264  EVIL 

tion.2°«  When  the  world  reaches  the  state  of  goodness,  Druj  will 
be  impotent  and  perish. ^°^ 

Indar 

Transformation  of  a  great  Indian  divinity  into  an  execrated 
demon  in  Persia.  In  the  Pahlavi  texts  Ahriman  is  represented 
to  have  created  Indar  as  the  opponent  of  Artavahisht.-"^  In  Ys. 
48.  I,  Druj  is  glossed  in  Pahlavi  by  Indar.  His  personality  is 
again  quite  ill-defined.  He  does  not  personify  Wickedness  proper, 
as  the  opponent  of  Artavahisht  should  logically  do  in  the  dualistic 
system;  but  his  chief  business  is  to  drive  the  thoughts  of  men 
from  virtuous  deeds,  and  incite  them  to  do  away  with  the  sacred 
shirt  and  girdle. -"''  He  will  be  routed  by  Artavahisht  in  the 
final  struggle.-^" 

SOVAR 

Enemy  of  the  divine  Kingdom  of  Righteousness.  The  busi- 
ness of  this  demon  is,  by  introducing  tyranny  and  anarchy  into 
the  world,  to  thwart  the  efforts  of  Shatravar  towards  establishing 
the  Divine  Kingdom  upon  earth. "^^  He  is  delighted  if  the  faithful 
discard  their  sacred  shirts  and  girdles.^^^  He  falls  before  his 
rival  and  perishes  at  the  final  conflagration  wrought  by  the  flood 
of  molten  metal  at  the  end  of  the  world. ^^^ 

Taromat 

The  demon  that  dries  up  the  spring  of  devotion  in  man. 

This  demon,  residing  in  the  human  will,  produces  disobedience,^^* 
and  dissuades  man  from  following  the  dictates  of  Spandarmad  ;  ^^^ 
but  he  will  meet  with  his  end  on  the  last  day  at  the  hands  of 
Spandarmad.^^^ 

"'  Dk.,  vol.  2,  pp.  Ill,  112;  vol.  6,  p.  417. 
"'  Dk.,  vol.  7,  p.  458. 
"'  Phi.  Vd.  19.  43 ;  Bd.  i.  27. 

"«  Bd.  28.  8,  10;  Dk.,  SBE.,  vol.  ZT,  bk.  9.  9.  i,  pp.  181,  182. 
""  Bd.  30.  29. 
"'  Bd.  28.  9. 
"'  Bd.  28.  10 
"=■  Bd.  30.  29. 
"*  Bd.  28.  14. 
"»  Dd.  94.  2. 
Bd.  30.  29. 


2ie 


EVIL  26s 

Naonghas 

Taromat's  confederate.  This  demon  is  identified  with  Taro- 
mat,^^^  and  is  ranked  as  the  opponent  of  Spandarmad.  His 
Avestan  counterpart  is  Naonghaithya.  He  gives  discontent  to 
creatures  and  is  deHghted  when  one  goes  without  shirt  and 
girdle.^^^ 

Tairev 

The  opponent  of  the  archangel  of  perfection.  The  demon 
is  the  adversary  of  Khurdad  ^^^  and  mingles  poison  with  plants,^^" 
and  is  rejoiced  when  one  walks  barefooted.--^  He  will  lie  low 
before  his  opponent.^^^ 

Zairich 

Tairev's  comrade.  He  also  poisons  plants,^^^  and  other  eat- 
ables.^^*  He  is  the  enemy  of  Amardad,^-^  who  will  finally  van- 
quish him.^^^ 

ASTOVIDAD 

This  demon  of  death  casts  his  deadly  noose  around  all. 
He  it  is  who  causes  the  painful  separation  of  the  soul  from  the 
body  and  brings  death. --^  He  casts  around  the  necks  of  all  that 
are  born  in  this  world  a  noose  which  cannot  be  thrown  off  by 
any  one  during  life.  But  at  the  dissolution  of  the  body,  when 
the  soul  emerges  from  its  prison  of  clay,  it  can  shake  off  the 
halter  if  it  is  righteous,  but  is  dragged  to  hell  by  means  of  this 
rope  if  it  is  wicked.--^  When  the  wicked  demon  Astovidad 
strokes  a  man,  he  causes  lethargy ;  when  he  lays  his  hands  on  the 
sick,  he  makes  him  feverish ;  when  he  looks  the  victim  in  the 
eye,  with  his  deadly  gaze,  he  deprives  him  of  life.^-^  He  was 
sent  by  Ahriman  in  the  beginning  of  creation  to  slay  the  primeval 

"^  Bd.  30.  29.  "«  Dd.  37.  52. 

"'  Bd.  28.  10.  "»  Phi.  Vd.  19.  43. 

^»  Phi.  Vd.  19.  43.  "«  Bd.  30.  29. 

Bd.  28.  II.  "'  Dk.,  vol.  10,  bk.  5.  19,  p.  16. 

Bd.  28.  13.  "'  Bd.  3.  22;  Dd.  22.  3;  Dk.  vol.  7, 
'"  Bd.  30.  29.  pp.  494,  495 ;  Gs.  141. 

="Bd.  28.  II.  ""Bd.  28.  35- 


2 

220 

221 


266  EVIL 

man ;  -^°  and  ever  since  that  time  he  has  been  destroying  all, 
and  yet  he  knows  no  check.^^^ 

ViZARSH 

Astovidad's  collaborator.  The  demon  Vizarsh  (Av.  Viza- 
resha)  frightens  the  souls  during  the  three  nights  of  their 
stay  in  this  world  after  death.^^^  He  sits  at  the  gate  of  hell, 
ready  to  drag  the  wicked  souls  down  to  the  infernal  depths,  as 
soon  as  they  are  sentenced  to  hell  by  the  heavenly  judges.  When 
the  souls  approach  the  bridge,  he  contends  with  Srosh  for  their 
possession. ^^^  He  casts  a  noose  around  the  neck  of  all  persons. 
The  righteous  ones  are  able  to  free  themselves  from  it,  but 
the  wicked  ones  are  entangled  in  it,  and  are  dragged  into  the 
infernal  abyss  by  it.^^* 

ESHM 

An  impetuous  assailant  of  man.  This  demon,  Eshm  (Av. 
Aeshma),  who  has  no  bodily  existence,"^^  occasions  trouble  in 
the  world  by  contests.^^^  He  contrives  all  evil,  and  he  attacks 
mankind  with  the  sevenfold  strength  of  a  fiend,-^'^  and  man  loses 
his  senses  when  Eshm  overpowers  him.^^^  He  rejoices  when 
man  disregards  the  admonitions  of  a  religious  preceptor,^^^  and 
any  man  in  whom  he  makes  his  abode  acts  like  a  thief. -*°  De- 
struction follows  where  he  steps  in.^'*^  For  example,  through 
his  seductiveness  he  made  King  Kaus  discontented  with  his 
earthly  possessions,  and  bred  in  him  a  burning  desire  for  con- 
quering the  heavenly  regions,^*^  in  which  attempt  to  fly  up  to  the 
sky  he  fell  to  his  undoing.  He  incites  Arjasp,  the  arch-enemy  of 
Zoroastrianism,  to  invade  the  territories  of  Gushtasp,  who  had 

"•  Bd.  3.  21 ;  Zsp.  4.  4. 
"'  Mkh.  2.  117. 

""  Bd.  28.  18;  cp.  Bd.  Modi,  An  untranslated  chapter  of  the  Bun- 
dehesh,  2. 

»"  Mkh.  2.  162. 

'"  Phi.  Vd.  19.  29. 

"°  Mkh.  27.  37. 

===»  Dd.  2,7.  52. 

"'  Bd.  28.  IS,  17- 

'''  Dk.,  vol.  3,  p.  152. 

''"  Bd.  28.  20. 

\\[  Dk.,  vol.  3.  p.  138. 

"J  Bd.  28.  16. 

"^  Dk.,  SEE.,  vol.  27,  bk.  9.  22.  5,  6,  p.  221. 


EVIL  267 

embraced  Zoroaster's  faith, -*^  but  Arjasp's  ruin  followed.  Ter- 
rible as  was  the  condition  of  Iran  when  Afrasiab,  and  still  earlier 
when  the  monstrous  Zohak  ruled  over  her  destinies,-**  it  would 
have  been  immeasurably  worse  had  Eshm  been  the  earthly 
sovereign.-*^  When  he  fails  to  spread  discord  and  quarrelling 
among  the  righteous,  he  works  among  the  wicked  to  the  same  end, 
and  again  if  defeat  meets  him  here  too,  he  causes  strife  among 
the  demons  and  fiends.-*''  He  contests  the  passage  of  the  soul  to 
the  Bridge  on  the  dawn  of  the  fourth  day  after  man's  death.^*^ 
One  of  the  Pahlavi  commentators  speaks  of  him  as  the  antagonist 
of  Vohuman,-*^  but  his  special  adversary  is  Srosh,  who  will 
smite  him  in  the  end.-*" 

Aposh 

Tishtar's  antagonist.  The  Pahlavi  works  mainly  repeat 
the  account  of  this  demon's  encounter  with  Tishtar,  that  is,  how 
the  angel  of  rain  fled  a  mile  away  in  terror  when  he  was  first 
assaulted  by  this  demon  of  drought,  but  how  he  later,  after  hav- 
ing begged  more  strength  from  Ormazd  and  received  it,  at  last 
overpowered  his  adversary.-^"  This  demon  struggles  always  to 
stop  the  rain  from  falling;  and,  failing  in  this,  he  strives  to  con- 
vert its  flow  into  a  cause  of  damage.-^^  Aposh  is  the  chief  cause 
of  drought,-^-  but  the  evil  eye  of  the  greedy  rulers  and  false 
judges  falling  on  the  rain,  prevents  its  fall ; -=^  and  in  this  act 
Spenjhagra,  another  demon,  joins  with  him.-^* 

Jeh 

A  powerful  demoness.  Ahriman  has  created  the  menses  in 
women;  and  Jeh  is  the  demoness  of  menstruation.  She  is  so 
powerful  that  her  very  look  smites  as  nothing  else  could  do.- 


55 


243 
244 
24S 
246 
247 
248 


Dk.,  SBE.,  vol.  47-  bk.  7.  4-  87,  p.  ^2. 
Dk.,  vol.  7,  PP-  454,  455- 
j\lkh.  27.  34-36. 
Dd.  2>1-   104- 
Mkh.  2.  115,  117. 
Phi.  Vd.  19.  43- 
"«Bd.  30.  29;  Mkh.  8.  14. 
Bd.  7.  8-10;  Zsp.  6.  9-11. 
Dd.  93.  12. 
Bd.  28.  39. 
Dk.,  vol.  3,  P-  148. 

Bd.  7.  12;  28.  39;  Dk.,  vol.  3,  P-  148. 
SIS.  3.  29. 


250 
251 
252 
263 
264 
255 


268  EVIL 

When  Ahriman  first  saw  man,  Ormazd's  best  creation  in  the 
world,  he  was  confounded ;  and  coward  as  he  is,  he  fell  prostrate 
bewailing.  His  evil  confederates  tried  all  in  their  power  to  give 
him  courage,  but  to  no  purpose,  until  finally  Jeh,  by  her  beguil- 
ing devices,  succeeded  in  reclaiming  him  from  impotency  and 
dejection.^^^ 

The  inmates  in  the  house  of  ill-fame  are  her  creatures.  It  is 
at  her  promptings  that  they  bring  upon  earth  this  darkest  curse 
that  blights  human  life. 

Other  Demons 

The  author  of  the  Bundahishn  tells  us  that  every  single  demon 
is  accompanied  by  many  more,  and  it  would  be  tedious  to  enumer- 
ate them  all  here.  They  are  certainly  very  numerous,  and  much 
of  their  defiling  nature  is  mingled  up  in  the  bodies  of  men.^'^^  In 
fact,  there  are  as  many  demons  as  the  sins  that  man  commits. ^^* 
The  following  are  the  demons  and  fiends  who  are  mentioned  in 
the  texts,  but  about  w^hom  nothing  special  is  known.  They  are: 
Mitokht  and  Arast  (falsehood),  Arashk  (malice),  Bushasp 
(sloth),  Uda  (chattering  while  eating),  Zarman  (decrepitude), 
Akatash  (perversion),  Oshtohad  (excessive  winter),  Chishmak 
(disaster),  Varun  (lust),  Sej  (decay),  Az  (avarice),  Niyaz 
(distress),  Nas  (defilement).  Push  (stinginess),  Friftar  (se- 
ducer), Spazg  (slander),  Aighash  and  Sur  Chashmih  (evil  eye). 
But  (idol),  Kundak  (wizard),  Kashvish  (revenge),  Drivish 
(poverty),  Dai  wish  (deceit),  Nung  (shame),  Paitish,  Dadani, 
Frazisht,  Nizisht,  and  Safle. 

""  Bd.  3.  1-7.  '"  Bd.  28.  37.  38.  '"  Bd.  28.  43- 


CHAPTER  XXXI 
LIFE  AFTER  DEATH 

Death  is  the  completion  of  life.  The  faithful  is  warned,  in 
the  Pahlavi  texts  as  in  the  Avesta,  that  he  should  always  re- 
member the  transitory  state  of  earthly  existence,  the  death  of 
the  body,  and  the  responsibility  of  his  soul ;  ^  for,  in  the  end, 
the  body  will  be  mingled  with  the  dust,  but  the  soul  will  survive ; 
and  man  should  therefore  labour  for  the  future  welfare  of  the 
soul.^  Death  is  the  completion  and  perfection  of  life.^  It  is 
not  an  extinction  of  individuality,  but  a  transfer  from  one  state 
to  another;  it  is  the  transition  of  the  soul  to  a  higher  life,  in 
which  it  gives  up  one  duty  to  take  up  another.*  Death  brings 
the  dissolution  of  the  body,  the  earthly  elements  are  dispersed, 
and  the  spiritual  elements  accompany  the  soul,  which  now  pro- 
ceeds to  the  next  world  to  render  the  account  of  its  deeds. ^  The 
body  served  as  the  garment  of  the  soul  as  long  as  the  soul  wore  it 
during  life,  but  when  it  is  outworn  the  soul  flings  it  behind  it. 
The  body  is  likened,  in  more  than  one  Pahlavi  passage,  to  a 
house,  of  which  the  soul  is  a  tenant ;  for  when  the  body  is  divested 
of  vital  power  and  falls  to  the  ground,  the  master  of  the  house 
leaves  it  to  crumble  into  dust.*^  Just  as  a  rider  becomes  helpless 
without  his  saddle  and  his  weapons  to  overthrow  his  enemy,  so 
does  the  soul  lose  all  hopes  of  routing  the  Druj,  when  the  body 
perishes;  for  the  soul  is  the  lord  of  life  and  conducts  the  battle 
between  good  and  evil.^  It  is  the  master  of  the  body.*  The  body 
becomes  useless  and  perishes  when  the  soul  leaves  it.^ 

Man  should  not  put  his  trust  in  the  possessions  of  this  earth ; 
his  happiness  is  but  the  passing  cloud  of  a  rainy  day ;  riches  and 
wealth,  titles  and  honours,  distinctions  of  birth  and  race — all 
will  be  of  no  avail  when  death  will  at  last  come  upon  him.^° 

^Mkh.   i8.  3-  "Dd.  23.  6:  AnAtAI.  142. 

'Mkh.  I.  22,  23;  AnAtM.  105.  '  Dk.,  vol.  6,  p.  354. 

'  Dk.,  vol.  5,  p.  330.  '  Dd.  3.  8. 

*Sg.  4.  87;  12.  79.  'Dk,  vol.  3.  pp.   150,  175- 

»Bd.  17.  9;  Sg.  4.  88-92;  Dk,  vol.  6,  p.  359-"  Mkh.  2.  98-110. 

269 


270  LIFE  AFTER  DEATH 

Body  is  the  lineament  of  man;  he  should  not  mistake  it  as  his 
real  self.  Whoso  moulds  his  actions  with  the  higher  object  of 
the  welfare  of  his  soul  gains  this  world  by  leaving  good  name 
and  fame  behind  him,  and  obtains  the  next  as  his  reward ;  but  the 
slave  to  passions  and  evil  desires,  who  lives  solely  for  the  body, 
loses  both  this  world  and  the  next  as  well.\^  The  body  of  the 
one  is  lean  in  this  world,  but  his  soul  is  fat  in  heaven,  whereas  a 
man  who  pines  after  bodily  pleasures  is  fattened  in  body  in  this 
world,  but  his  soul  is  hungry  and  lean  in  the  next  world.^^  There 
is  a  remedy  for  everything,  but  not  for  death."  A  man  may 
live  a  hundred  years  in  this  world,  but  death  will  at  last  overtake 
him.^*  Then  at  last  he  will  sleep  in  the  deep  silence  of  death. 
The  closed  eyes  will  not  open;  the  heart  will  not  throb;  hands 
and  feet  will  not  move;  and  the  prince  and  peasant  will  leave  the 
world  in  exactly  the  same  manner.^^  The  body  will  then  be 
removed  to  its  final  resting-place,  where  go  the  great  and  the 
small,  the  master  and  the  servant,  the  righteous  and  the  wicked 
alike." 

A  man  may  avoid  the  danger  of  tigers  and  wild  beasts,  of 
robbers  and  inimical  persons,  but  he  cannot  live  without  fear  of 
the  demon  of  death. ^^  He  is  helpless  when  death  swoops  down 
on  him.  Some  die  at  an  early  age,  almost  as  if  they  had  never 
been  born,  and  even  those  that  live  long  have  ultimately  to  quit 
the  world.^^  Life  is  short  in  this  world,  but  long  in  the  next.^^ 
Man  should  practise  such  good  deeds  during  his  lifetime  that  on 
his  death-bed  he  should  think  it  would  have  been  better  had  he 
done  even  more  of  them,  and  avoid  such  acts  for  which  he 
would  have  to  wish  during  the  last  moments  of  his  life  that  they 
had  not  been  performed.^"  The  individual  who  has  been  indif- 
ferent in  his  devotions  to  the  Lord  is  distressed  when  death 
approaches  and  thinks  of  him  the  more.^^ 

Srosh's  help  indispensable  for  the  disembodied  souls.  At 
death  the  soul  shakes  off  the  fetters  of  the  body.  This  sever- 
ance of  the  soul  from  the  body  is  fraught  with  momentous  diffi- 
culties for  the  former.  As  an  infant  that  is  just  born  in  this 
world  requires  care  from  a  midwife  and  others,  so  does  a  soul 

"  Mkh.  21.  10.  "  Dk.,  vol.  7,  PP-  452,  453. 

"  BYt.  2.  56.  "  Gs.  165. 

"  Dk.,  vol  12,  bk.  6.  A.  6,  p.  37.        "  AnKhK.  5. 

"  AnAtlNI.  139.  "  Dk.,  vol.  10,  bk.  6.  17,  p.  6. 

"  AnAtM.  143.  "  Dk,  vol.  5,  p.  279. 

"  AnAtM.  145. 


'    LIFE  AFTER  DEATH  271 

that  has  just  emerged  from  the  body  require  help  and  protection 
against  evil  influences.  It  is  said  that  the  righteous  Srosh  acts 
at  this  juncture  as  a  midwife  to  the  righteous  soul  in  its  be- 
wilderment, and  does  not  let  it  go  into  the  clutches  of  Ahriman.^^ 
It  is  therefore  deemed  advisable  to  secure  the  services  of  this 
angel  even  in  advance  by  propitiating  him  with  rituals  during 
the  lifetime  of  the  individual.  But  if  that  has  not  been  the  case, 
his  relatives  should  never  fail  to  offer  sacrifices  in  his  honour 
immediately  after  death  and  continue  them  for  the  three  days 
and  three  nights  that  the  soul  stays  in  this  world  after  death.-^ 
Besides  watching  and  protecting  the  soul  at  this  critical  period, 
Srosh  is  also  one  of  the  judges  who  will  then  take  account  of  the 
soul.  It  is  indispensable,  therefore,  to  order  ceremonies  to  be 
performed  for  Srosh  during  the  time  that  the  soul  tarries  in 
this  world  before  embarking  on  its  celestial  journey.-* 

The  souls  visualize  the  good  or  bad  deeds  of  the  lives  they 
have  just  completed.  In  conformity  with  the  statement  of  the 
Avestan  texts,  the  Pahlavists  also  depict  the  human  souls  as 
hovering  about  the  head  of  the  dead  for  three  nights  after  death, 
experiencing  joy  or  grief,  according  as  they  have  lived  in  right- 
eousness or  wickedness.-^  It  is  stated  that  during  the  first  night 
satisfaction  from  their  good  thoughts  comes  to  the  souls  and 
vexation  from  their  evil  thoughts,  during  the  second  night  satis- 
faction from  their  good  words  and  vexation  from  their  evil  words, 
and  during  the  third  night  satisfaction  from  their  good  deeds 
and  vexation  from  their  evil  deeds.^*^  The  demon  Vizarsh  strug- 
gles with  the  souls  during  this  period.^^  The  souls  experience 
as  much  pleasure  or  pain  during  these  nights  as  they  have  had 
during  their  whole  life  on  earth.-^  The  soul  of  the  wicked  person, 
over  whose  head  hangs  the  coming  retribution,  now  wishes 
that  it  could  re-enter  the  body  for  some  time  in  order  to  make 
up  for  the  faults  and  shortcomings  of  the  life  that  it  has  just 
finished.-^    As  a  rider  requires  a  horse,  so  the  soul  needs  a  body, 

"  Sd.  58.  7. 

"  Dd.  28.  5 ;  SIS.  17  3 ;  Sd.  58.  5,  6,  8,  9. 
"  Dd.  28.  6. 

"  Bd.  Modi,  An  untranslated  chapter  of  the  Bundehesh.  2;  Mkh.  2. 
114,  156-160;  Dd.  20.  2;  24.  2;  25.  2;  AV.  4-  9-14;  I/-  2-9;  Hn.  2.  2-5;  3. 

2-5- 

^"Dd.  24.  4;  25.  4- 
"  Bd.  28.  18;  Modi,  op.  cit.,  2. 
*'  Hn.  2.  6,  II,  16;  3.  S,  10,  16. 
"  Dd.  16.  4- 


272  LIFE  AFTER  DEATH 

without  which  it  is  unable  to  act  in  this  world.^°  It  now  dis- 
covers, when  it  is  too  late,  that  it  has  lost  the  opportunity  and 
worked  all  the  while  for  naught.  It  feels  as  if  it  had  thrown 
away  all  good  deeds  either  into  the  fire  to  be  burnt  or  into  the 
water  to  be  drowned  instead  of  practising  them  and  storing  them 
up  for  its  own  merit. ^^  It  wishes  it  had  enjoyed  less  in  the  world 
below  and  practised  virtue  more,^^  and  it  realizes  too  late  that 
the  most  precious  period  of  its  earthly  life  is  now  lost  beyond 
recovery. 

The  souls  escorted  by  the  genii  of  their  own  deeds  to  the 
other  world.  At  the  end  of  the  third  night  when  the  dawn 
breaks,  the  souls  undertake  their  memorable  journey  with  the 
co-operation  of  the  good  angels  Srosh,  Vae  the  good,  and 
Varhran ;  in  the  midst  of  the  opposition  of  Astovidat,  of  Vae  the 
bad,  Frazisht,  Nizisht,  and  Eshm.  When  the  souls  pass  from 
the  midst  of  the  sweet-scented  trees,  if  they  are  righteous,  or  from 
among  foul-scented  trees,  if  they  are  wicked,  they  meet  their 
conscience,  the  righteous  soul  beholding  her  in  the  form  of  a 
beautiful  damsel,  personifying  the  store  of  its  own  good  works, 
but  the  wicked  soul  seeing  a  hideous  woman,  typifying  the  store 
of  its  own  evil  deeds. ^^  In  addition  to  the  escort  of  the  angelic 
figure  or  the  fiendish  apparition,  the  Dinkart  and  some  copies  of 
the  Bundahishn  mention  that  a  beautiful  fat  cow  and  a  fair 
garden,  as  well  as  this  damsel,  are  met  with  by  a  righteous  soul, 
while  an  ugly,  lean  cow  and  a  barren  desert,  besides  the  hideous 
hag,  are  encountered  by  a  wicked  soul.^*  The  description  of  the 
celestial  journey  and  of  the  happenings  on  the  way,  as  found  in 
the  Menuk-i  Khrat,  differs  a  little  from  the  other  works.  These, 
in  agreement  with  the  accounts  in  the  Avestan  texts,  depict  the 
soul  as  meeting  its  daena  prior  to  its  crossing  the  bridge,  but 
Menuk-i  Khrat  brings  her  on  the  scene  after  the  soul  has 
passed  the  bridge.  Besides,  the  pious  soul  is  made  to  con- 
verse on  the  way  with  Srosh,  which  is  not  the  case  in  the  other 
texts. 

The  heavenly  judges.  The  Pahlavi  works  give  us  an  elab- 
orate account  of  the  way  in  which  justice  is  administered  to  the 


'"  Dk.,  vol.  6,  pp.  380,  381. 
"Dk.,  vol.  II,  bk.  6.  219,  p.  82. 


33 


Dk.,  vol.  II,  bk.  6.  211,  p.  /8. 

Bd.  Modi,  op.  cit.,  5-7;  Dd.  24.  5 ;  25.  5 ;  Mkh.  2.  115,  127-181 ;  AV.  4- 
15-36;  17.  10-26;  Dk..  vol.  2,  pp.  82,  83;  Hn.  2.  19-32;  3.  17-20. 
"  Bd.  Modi,  op.  cit.,  5,  7 ;  Dk.,  vol.  2,  p.  83. 


LIFE  AFTER  DEATH  273 

souls  after  death.  The  reckoning  takes  place  on  the  dawn  of 
the  fourth  day.^-"^  Throughout  the  entire  life  of  mortals  it  is  the 
duty  of  Vohuman  to  note  down  three  times  each  day  the  good 
and  evil  deeds  of  everyone,  both  men  and  women,  in  the  book  of 
life.^^  Mihr,  Srosh,  and  Rashn  sit  as  judges  in  the  hereafter  to 
take  account  of  the  souls  that  approach  the  bridge.^''  Unlike  the 
human  judges  who  base  their  decisions  on  the  biased  or  fallible 
evidence  of  the  witnesses  for  the  plaintiff  or  the  accused,  the 
divine  judges  need  only  to  scan  with  their  spiritual  eyes  the 
record  kept  by  an  archangel,  and  then  to  acquit  or  sentence  the 
souls  accordingly.^*-  Rashn  holds  the  balance  in  his  hands  and 
weighs  the  good  and  evil  deeds  of  the  souls  so  impartially  that 
the  scales  do  not  turn  wrongfully,  even  by  a  hair's  breadth  in 
favour  of  a  righteous  man  or  of  a  wicked,  of  a  lord  or  of  a 
king,  but  work  equally  in  case  of  the  peasant  and  the  prince.^*^ 
Injustice  and  partiality  have  no  place  in  this  celestial  court,  which 
is  administered  with  stern  but  exact  equity.*'' 

Location  of  the  Bridge  of  Judgment.  All  the  righteous 
as  well  as  the  wicked  souls  have  to  proceed  to  this  bridge  for 
judgment,  where  the  account  of  the  souls  takes  place. *^  The 
bridge  rests  on  the  peak  called  "  the  peak  of  justice,"  situated  in 
the  middle  of  the  world  in  Iranvej,  and  is  of  the  height  of  a  hun- 
dred men.  The  two  extremities  of  the  bridge  rest  on  the  north- 
ern and  southern  ridges  of  Mount  Alburz.*- 

The  bridge  provides  a  wide  passage  to  the  pious  souls,  but 
confronts  the  wicked  with  its  sharp  edge.  The  bridge  is 
guarded  by  the  angels  and  the  spiritual  dogs.*^  It  is  broad  as  a 
beam  and  has  many  sides.  Some  of  these  are  twenty-seven  reeds 
in  width  or  nine  spears  or  nine  javelins  or  even  a  league  in  width, 
whereas  the  others  are  as  sharp  as  the  edge  of  a  razor.**  The 
bridge  is  so  arranged  that  it  presents  its  broad  side  when  a 
righteous  soul  passes  over  it,  and  gives  it  an  easy  passage,  but 
puts  forward  its  thin  edge  when  a  wicked  soul  attempts  to  cross 

"Dd.  13.  2;  20.  3;  Gs.  133. 

"'  Dd.  14.  2. 

"  Dd.  14.  3,  4;  Mkh.  2.  118. 

="  Dk.,  vol.  7,  P-  451. 

"  Mkh.   2.    1 19-122. 

"  Sg.  4.  98,  99. 

"  Bd.  12.  7;  Mkh.  2.  115;  Gs.  133;  AnAtM.  139,  147. 

"  Phi.  Vd.  19.  30;  Bd.  12.  7;  cf.  Modi,  op.  cit.,  i;  Dd.  21.  2. 

"  Bd.  Modi,  op.  cit.,  i. 

"  Bd.  Modi,  op.  cit.,  i;  Dd.  21.  3,  5;  Mkh.  2.  123;  AV.  5-  i- 


274  LIFE  AFTER  DEATH 

it.^^  The  pious  soul  is  helped  by  Srosh,  Atar,  and  by  its  own 
conscience  to  cross  the  bridge  and  go  to  its  destination,  but  the 
impious  one  falls  headlong  into  hell.***  A  passage  adds  that  the 
fire  Frabag  smites  the  darkness  and  enables  a  pious  soul  to  pass 
over  the  narrow  edge  in  the  form  of  fire.*^  Furthermore,  Vae, 
the  angel  of  wind,  takes  such  a  soul  by  its  hand  and  escorts  it  to 
its  proper  place.^^  Of  all  the  wicked  souls  the  one  of  a  malicious 
man  finds  it  most  difificult  to  cross  the  bridge,  for  malice  is  a  sin 
which  does  not  affect  the  sinner  only,  but  generally  abides  in  a 
lineage.*^  The  wicked  soul  complains  that  it  would  prefer  being 
cut  by  a  sharp  knife  or  pierced  by  an  arrow  "to  its  being  obliged 
to  cross  the  terrible  bridge.^" 

Insane  persons  and  children  are  not  accountable  for  their 
own  deeds,  but  their  parents  are  responsible.  All  those  that 
are  mentally  unsound  and  also  children  are  not  held  respon- 
sible for  their  deeds,  but  are  considered  eligible  for  paradise. ^^ 
We  are  further  told  in  another  passage  of  the  Pahlavi  texts  that 
the  children  accompany  their  parents  either  to  heaven  or  hell  as 
the  latter  have  deserved.'^^  The  children  that  have  thus  entered 
hell  with  their  wicked  parents  are  separated  from  them  if  due 
ceremonies  are  performed  in  honour  of  Srosh  by  their  rela- 
tives, and  may  then  proceed  to  heaven. ^^ 

The  method  of  administering  justice  in  the  heavenly 
tribunal.  The  ordinary  way  of  judging  the  souls  is  said  to  be 
that  of  weighing  the  good  and  evil  deeds  in  a  scale  and  deciding 
to  which  of  the  two  sides  the  scale  turned.  Roughly  speaking, 
if  the  good  deeds  exceed  the  evil,  the  soul  is  entitled  to  go  to 
heaven.^*  But  if  the  evil  deeds  preponderate,  the  soul  is  assigned 
to  go  to  hell.^^  The  side  of  the  balance  that  outweighs  the  other 
even  by  a  hair  of  the  eyelash  determines  the  fate  of  the  soul 
accordingly.^®     If  the  good  deeds  are  in  weight  three   Srosho- 

"Bd.  JNIodi,  op.  cit.,  to;  Dd.  2i.  5.  7;  85.  7. 

"  Bd.  Modi,  op.  cit.,  10,  11,  13;  Dd.  20.  4;  21.  7;  25.  6;  34.  3,  4;  Mkh. 

2.  124;  AnKhK.  s. 
"  Bd.  Modi,  op.  cit.,  9. 
*'  lb.,  II. 

I\Ikh.  21.  19. 

Bd.  Modi,  op.  cit.,  14. 

Dk.,  vol.  2,  pp.  89,  90;  vol.  3,  p.  144;  vol.  4,  pp.  189,  190. 


49 

50 
SI 

"  Sd.    47.    2. 

"  Sd.  47-  3 


"  Mkh.  12.  13;  SIS.  6.  2-4:  Sg.  4.  93,  94. 
"  Mkh.  12.  15;  Sg.  4-  95,  96;  AV.  6.  10. 
"  Sd.  2.  3,  4- 


LIFE  AFTER  DEATH  275 

charan  more  than  the  evil  deeds,  the  soul  attains  to  heaven ;  '^  if 
the  evil  deeds  exceed  the  good  ones  by  three  Sroshocharan,  the 
soul  is  doomed  to  hell  until  the  time  of  the  Resurrection.^^  An 
infidel  is  saved  from  hell  if  good  deeds  are  one  Tanapuhar  weight 
more  than  his  evil  deeds. ^^ 

The  author  of  the  Dadistan  texts  takes  a  more  rational  view 
and  asserts  that  it  is  not  simply  the  preponderating  good  or  evil 
deeds  that  score  off  their  opposite,  so  that  the  soul  receives  recom- 
pense or  retribution  on  the  residue,  but  that  every  single  good  or 
evil  deed  is  taken  into  account  separately  and  receives  its  recom- 
pense or  retribution  in  accordance.  Thus  a  righteous  soul  whose 
preponderating  good  deeds  have  entitled  it  to  heaven  does  not 
escape  a  temporary  punishment  for  the  few  misdeeds  that  stand 
on  its  account.  Similarly  the  wicked  soul  that  is  doomed  to  hell 
for  its  evil  deeds  has  at  least  a  few  good  deeds  to  its  credit,  and 
consequently  receives  temporary  enjoyment  severally  for  these 
before  it  is  sent  to  perdition  for  its  wrongs.^"  In  other  words, 
the  righteous  soul  may  have  a  few  misdeeds  for  which  it  has  not 
atoned,  and  will  therefore  undergo  a  corresponding  punishment 
after  death  before  it  is  admitted  to  the  company  of  the  right- 
eous,''^ and  the  same  is  logically  true  of  the  soul  of  the  sinner. 
The  sins  usually  accounted  for  at  the  bridge  are  those  that  have 
not  been  expiated  during  the  lifetime  of  the  individual.*'-  Those 
that  are  already  atoned  for  in  this  world  are  not  laid  to  his  charge 
hereafter,  but  stand  cancelled  in  the  book  of  life,  and  no  account 
is  taken  of  them  at  the  bridge.*'^  We  find,  however,  in  another 
place  that  such  a  soul  does  receive  a  temporary  punishment  at 
the  bridge,  but  is  spared  the  future  tortures  of  hell.®* 

Heaven 

The  graduated  heavens.  The  division  of  heaven,  or  the 
celestial  realms,  into  several  mansions  of  Paradise,  as  recog- 
nized in  the  Avesta,  remains  unaltered  in  the  Pahlavi  period. 
Heaven  in  general  is  designated  Vahisht,  Paradise,  but  the 
divisions  of  heaven  into  the  domains  of  Good  Thoughts,  Good 
Words,   and  Good   Deeds,   with   the   highest   heaven   Garotman, 

"  Phi.  Vd.  7.  52;  SIS.  6.  3;  AV.  6.  9.       "  Phi.  Vd.  7.  52. 

''  Phi.  Vd.  7-  52.  "'  Dd.  24.  5. 

"  SIS.  6.  6.  "  Dd.  13.  2,  3. 

"<•  Dd.  13.  4;  24.  6.  "  Dd.  41.  8;  Sd.  45.  10. 


276  LIFE  AFTER  DEATH 

make  up  the  four  chief  heavens.^^  Endless  Light  and  Best 
Existence  are  variants  frequently  used  for  Garotman.'^^  The 
several  heavens  of  the  celestial  world  are  also  known  after  the 
names  of  their  locations  in  space,  and  are  then  called  the  heavens 
of  the  Star  Region,  the  Moon  Region,  the  Sun  Region,  and  that 
of  Endless  Light.*"'  A  distinction  is  generally  made  between  the 
lower  heavens  and  the  highest  heaven.^*  If  one's  good  deeds  are 
three  Sroshocharans  more  than  his  evil  deeds  he  goes  to  Vahisht, 
or  heaven,  but  if  they  are  only  one  Tanapuhar  in  weight  more  than 
his  misdeeds  the  soul  goes  to  the  Best  Existence.^^  With  the 
same  idea  it  is  said  that  when  ceremonies  are  not  performed  for 
the  good  of  the  soul,  it  goes  to  heaven,  but  when  performed  it 
ascends  to  the  highest  Garotman/^ 

If  the  good  deeds  are  in  excess  the  righteous  soul  goes  to 
heaven  on  the  dawn  of  the  fourth  day,  but  if,  in  addition  to  the 
stock  of  this  virtue,  he  has  chanted  the  Gathas,  and  thus  has 
extra  merit  to  his  credit  as  a  true  believer,  he  then  is  transported 
aloft  to  GarotmanJ^  Vohuman  welcomes  such  a  righteous  soul, 
and  announces,  at  the  command  of  Ormazd,  its  place  and  re- 
ward.''^ The  same  archangel  thereupon  offers  the  sanctified  spirit 
a  cup  of  ambrosia  to  drink,"  and  the  righteous  souls  that  are 
in  heaven  greet  it  with  joy  and  pleasure.^* 

Location  of  heavens.  The  concept  of  the  next  world,  which 
was  abstract  and  spiritual  in  the  Gathic  and  Later  Avestan  periods, 
gradually  becomes  concrete  and  material.  The  separate  heavens 
as  well  as  hells  retain  their  names  which  designate  abstract 
virtues  as  Good  or  Evil  Thoughts,  Words,  and  Deeds,  but  they 
are  now  in  reality  completely  materialized.  Different  heavens 
are  located  in  different  parts  of  the  cosmos,  and  a  sharply  de- 
fined boundary  line  divides  them  from  one  another.  The  sep- 
arate heavens  begin  with  the  Star  Region."^     The  first  heaven, 

"  Hn.  2.  23,  34;  Mkh.  2.  145,  146;  7.  12;  57-  U;  AV.  7.  i ;  8.  i ;  9.  i ; 
10.  I. 

"^  Dd.  I.  3 ;  14.  7 ;  34.  3 ;  SIS.  10.  26. 

*'  Bd.  12.  i;  Dd.  34.  3;  Mkh.  7.  9-1 1;  Dk.,  vol.  7,  p.  461. 

''  Bd.  12.  I ;  30.  27;  Dd.  14.  7;  24.  6;  31.  4,  15,  17,  22,  25;  34.  3;  Sd. 
80.  II. 

"'  SIS.  6.  3- 

"  Dd.  20.  3. 

"  Dd.  31.  5. 

"  Phi.  Vd.  19.  31- 

'*  Dd.  31.  9. 

"  Dk.,  vol.  9,  p.  626. 


LIFE  AFTER  DEATH  277 

of  Good  Thoughts,  is  represented  as  extending  from  the  stars 
to  the  moon;  the  second  heaven,  of  Good  Words,  commences 
from  the  moon  and  reaches  the  sun;  the  third,  of  Good  Deeds, 
extends  from  the  sun  to  the  lower  Hmits  of  Garotman,  and 
the  last,  or  the  highest  Garotman,  the  Best  Existence,  the 
abode  of  Ahura  Mazda,  is  in  the  regions  of  the  Endless 
Light.^" 

Nature  of  heaven.  Heaven  is  exalted,  resplendent,  most 
fragrant,  and  most  desirable."  It  possesses  all  light,  all  good- 
ness, all  glory,  all  fragrance,  and  all  joy.''«  It  has  comfort, 
pleasure,  joy,  and  happiness  that  are  higher  and  greater  than  the 
highest  and  greatest  comfort,  pleasure,  joy,  and  happiness  in 
this  world.  It  is  devoid  of  want,  pain,  distress,  and  discomfort,^'-* 
and  it  is  luminous,  full  of  charm  and  full  of  bliss.®"  Just  as  any- 
thing that  is  unlimited,  imperishable,  inconsumable,  and  everlast- 
ing is  greater  than  that  which  is  limited,  perishable,  passing,  and 
consumable,  so  is  the  felicity  of  heaven  greater  than  that  of  this 
world. *^  The  supremest  happiness  and  pleasure  in  this  world 
could  not  bear  comparison  with  the  eternal  felicities  of  heaven.*^ 
Sweet-scented  breezes,  like  that  of  basil,  continually  blow  in 
paradise,  spreading  fragrance  everywhere.®^  The  grandeur  and 
beauty  are  such  that  the  souls  have  never  seen  anything  so  ex- 
quisite in  the  material  world.  It  is  the  residence  of  Ormazd,  the 
archangels  and  angels,  and  of  the  Guardian  Spirits  as  well  as 
the  most  blessed  among  mankind.®*®^ 

Condition  of  the  souls  in  heaven.  The  souls  in  paradise 
move  and  perceive,  and  feel  like  the  angels  and  archangels ;  they 
are  undecaying,  undying,  unharmed,  untroubled,  full  of  glory,  joy, 
pleasure,  and  happiness ;  and  enjoy  the  fragrant  breeze  as  sweet 
as  the  basil.®*'  The  radiance  and  brightness  of  the  souls  in 
heaven  are  like  the  stars  and  the  moon  and  the  sun,  and  they  sit 
on  the  golden  thrones  and  carpets.®^  The  beatified  souls  are 
attired  in  clothings  embroidered  with  gold  and  silver,  and  are 
seated  on  golden  thrones,  with  golden  carpets  and  richly  adorned 
cushions.     Those   of    women    are    bedecked    with    jewelrj^,    and 

"  Mkh.  7-  9-12;  AV.  7-10.  "'  Dd.  31.  22. 

"  Dd.  26.  2.  *'  Mkh.  7.  15. 

"  Dk.,  vol.  3,  p.  136;  AV.  IS.  21.        "-'» Dk,  vol.  2,  p.  80. 

"  Dd.  26.  3.  '"Mkh.  7.   13-17:  40.  30. 

"»  Dk.,  vol.  9,  p.  626.  "  AV.  7-  2,  3 ;  8.  7 ;  9.  3,  4. 

"Dd.  26.  5;  31.  23,  24. 


2/8  LIFE  AFTER  DEATH 

those  of  warriors  with  golden  arms  and  equipment  studded  with 
jewelry. ^^ 

Celestial  food.  The  food  that  is  given  to  the  souls  of  the 
righteous  ones  in  heaven  as  soon  as  they  enter  its  gates  is  the 
ambrosia,  the  spiritual  food  of  the  angels  themselves. ^^ 

Duration  of  heavenly  bliss.  The  souls  that  have  ascended  to 
heaven  enjoy  happiness,  and  remain  full  of  glory  forever  and 
ever.**"  This  state  of  felicity  continues  up  to  the  day  of  Resur- 
rection.'^^ 

Hamistagan 

The  intermediary  place  between  heaven  and  hell.  It  is 
situated  between  the  earth  and  the  starry  regions.^-  According  to 
the  belief  current  in  the  Pahlavi  period,  which  dates  back  to  far 
more  ancient  times,  there  is  provided  a  place  for  those  particular 
souls  in  whose  case  the  balance  trembles  evenly  between  good 
and  evil  at  the  bridge,  owing  to  the  exact  counterpoise  between 
righteousness  and  sin  in  the  scale  into  which  they  have  cast  their 
deeds  in  the  present  life.®^ 

The  condition  of  its  inmates  till  the  final  day  of  the  Reno- 
vation. The  place  of  the  Hamistagan  resembles  this  earth. ^* 
The  souls  that  are  transported  to  this  place  have  no  other  suf- 
ferings than  cold  and  heat.'-*^  Exposed  to  the  inclemency  of 
weather,  they  shiver  in  winter  and  frost  and  are  scorched  in  the 
tropical  summer  up  to  the  day  of  Resurrection.®^  Beyond  that, 
however,  the  Pahlavi  texts  speak  of  no  other  suffering,  and  their 
final  fate  is  postponed  till  the  universe  is  restored  at  the  last  day 
of  the  general  restoration  of  the  world. 

Hell 

Graduated  hells.  Corresponding  to  the  four  heavens  or  a 
fourfold  division  of  heaven,  the  texts  mention  four  principal 
hells.      These   are    the    Evil    Thought    Hell,    Evil    Word    Hell, 

**  Mkh.  2.  154,  156;  AV.  12.  2,  3,  7,  9,  14,  16;  13-  I,  2;  14.  7-9.  Hi  i5-  9- 
*'  Dd.  31.  12-14;  Mkh.  2.  152,  156;  Hn.  2.  38,  39. 
*•  Mkh.  2.  157;  7.  17;  40.  30. 
"  Dd.  31.  25. 
"  Mkh.  7-  18. 

»'Phl.  Vd.  7.  52;  Bd.  Modi,  op.  cit.,  15;  SIS.  6.  2;  Dd.  20.  3;  24.  6; 
33.  2:  Mkh.  12.  14;  Dk.,  vol.  9,  P-  626;  AV.  6.  7,  11. 
"  Bd.  Modi,  op.  cit.,  13. 
Mkh.  7.  19;  AV.  6.  12. 
AV.  6.  6,  II,  12. 


ss 


LIFE  AFTER  DEATH  279 

Evil  Deed  Hell,  and  the  Worst  Existence  of  Darkness.^''  Some- 
times the  grades  of  hell  are  vaguely  spoken  of  without  any 
definite  number.^^ 

Location  of  hell.  The  abode  of  the  sinners  is  in  the  middle 
of  the  earth,"^  down  below  the  Chinvat  Bridge.^"''  It  is  in 
the  northern  regions,  as  in  Avestan  times  it  was  also  believed 
to  be,  and  below  the  surface  of  the  earth,  with  its  gate  on  the 
ridge  Arezur,  where  the  demons  hold  their  fiendish  council. ^"^ 

Description  of  hell.  Hell  is  deep  and  dreadful,  dark  and 
stinking,  vile  and  grievous,  cold  and  stony,  devoid  of  joy  and 
pleasure,  of  comfort  and  happiness,  and  full  of  pain  and  punish- 
ment, filth  and  stench,  misery  and  torture.^"-  It  is  coldest  beyond 
description  in  one  place  and  hottest  in  another  and  is  full  of 
noxious  creatures,  stench,  and  darkness.^"^  It  is  traversed  by  a 
gloomy  and  dreadful  river  filled  by  the  tears  shed  by  men  for 
their  departed  ones.^°*  The  depth  of  hell  is  such  that  its  bottom 
cannot  be  reached  by  a  thousand  cubits,^°^  and  it  is  tenanted  by 
the  demons,  fiends,  and  the  souls  of  the  damned.^*"' 

Ahriman  greets  the  wicked  souls  in  hell  with  scorn  and 
mockery.  No  sooner  is  the  terrible  sentence  pronounced  upon 
those  destined  for  perdition  than  Vizarsh  and  other  demons 
pounce  upon  the  wretched  souls  of  the  sinful  and  put  them  in 
heavy  chains,  and,  beating  them  and  mercilessly  torturing  them, 
drag  them  down  to  hell.^°^  The  wretched  souls  now  repent  of 
their  sins  and  exclaim  that  it  would  have  been  better  for  them  if 
they  had  not  been  born  upon  the  earth."^  The  angels  give  them 
up  to  the  charge  of  the  demons,  their  own  conscience  deserts  them, 
and  thus  forsaken  and  forlorn,  they  lament  and  weep,  shout  and 
shriek,  gnash  their  teeth  and  tear  their  hair,  mutilate  their  limbs 
and  lacerate  themselves,  making  moan,  and  soaking  the  ground 
with  a  torrent  of  tears.    But  all  in  vain.    Unavailing  are  their  cries 

"  Mkh.  2.  182,  183;  7.  20,  21. 

"'  Bd.  11;  Dd.  20.  4;  33-  3-5 ;  Dk.,  vol.  8,  p.  448. 

'*  Bd.  3.  27. 

""  Bd.  Modi,  op.  cit.,  i ;  Dk.,  vol.  9,  p.  626;  AV.  53-  2,  3. 
^"  Phi.  Vd.  3-  7;  Bd    12.  8;  Dd.  33-  5- 
'"Bd.  28.  47;  Dd.  27.  2-5;  33-  2;  Dk.,  vol.  8,  p.  449;  vol.  9,  p.  626; 

AV.  54-  1- 

"*  Mkh.  7.  27-31. 

"*  AV.  16.  2,  7. 

""  AV.  54-  3. 

"«  Dk.,  vol.  3,  P-  135- 

"'  Dd.  32.  4-7 ;  Mkh.  2.  164. 

""  Dk.,  vol.  5,  P-  279. 


28o  LIFE  AFTER  DEATH 

and  lamentations,  for  the  denizens  of  heaven  seem  to  be  under 
the  spell  of  the  drowsy  fiend,  Bushasp,  who  has  lulled  them  to 
sleep,  and  the  righteous  souls  in  heaven  seem  to  have  grown 
callous  and  indifferent  to  the  pangs  of  their  former  earthly  asso- 
ciates. In  this  frightful  condition  there  is  no  one  to  pity  them, 
and  none  to  cast  a  look  of  mercy  on  them  in  their  disconsolate 
condition  on  the  way  to  the  infernal  realm.  Writhing  in  suf- 
fering and  sorrow,  they  now  enter  hell,^"®  and  with  the  fourth 
step  of  the  downward  descent  to  perdition  they  approach  Ahriman, 
who  addresses  them  with  ribald  mockery,  saying  in  scornful 
banter  that  it  is  strange  they  preferred  the  gloom  and  misery  of 
hell  to  the  joy  and  happiness  of  heaven,^^°  revolted  from  the 
will  of  Ormazd,  whose  bread  they  ever  ate,  and  practised  the 
evil  of  the  Evil  Spirit. ^^^  The  demons  and  fiends  incessantly 
rail  at  the  wretched  souls  and  finally  hurl  them  headlong  into 
the  darkest  abyss. 

Punishments  and  retributive  justice.  The  souls  are  gener- 
ally punished  by  the  particular  demon  or  demons  in  conformity  to 
whose  will  the  individual  has  sinned  in  this  world. ^^^  These  fiends 
take  a  cruel  delight  in  torturing  the  souls  for  the  very  sins  that 
they  themselves  had  instigated.  The  degree  of  the  suffering  is 
exactly  proportioned  to  the  transgression,  and  the  form  of  pun- 
ishment meted  out  corresponds  in  the  same  manner  to  the  va- 
rious crimes  committed  in  this  world.  We  may  select  only  a 
few  instances  from  the  elaborate  list  of  Viraf.  The  one  that 
has  slain  a  pious  man  is  himself  killed  over  and  over  again  in  hell 
as  a  punishment.^^^  He  who  has  eaten  unlawfully  without  say- 
ing grace  starves  eternally  of  hunger  and  thirst. ^^*"^^^  The  mer- 
chant who  used  false  scales  and  sold  adulterated  goods  on  earth 
must  day  and  night  in  hell  measure  bushels  full  of  filth  and  then 
devour  them.^^®  A  tyrant  king  is  tortured  by  being  flogged  by 
demons  with  darting  serpents. ^^^  A  liar  and  a  slanderer  have 
their  tongues  ever  gnawed  by  noxious  creatures. ^^^     The  law 

"»  Mkh.  2.  165,  166. 

""  Mkh.  2.  184-186;  7-  23-25. 

"^  AV.  100.  2-5. 

"*  Dd,  14.  6;  32.  II;  Mkh.  21.  11,  16,  17,  40,  43,  44. 

"'AV.  21.  i-S. 

114.116  ^y     23.    i.g. 

""  AV.  27.  1-7;  80.  1-7. 

"'  AV.  28.  1-6. 

"«  AV.  29.  1-6;  33-  1-6;  66.   1-6. 


LIFE  AFTER  DEATH 


281 


obtains  in  hell  that  all  demons  assail  their  victims  from  the  front, 
but  the  demon  of  slander  alone  attacks  from  the  rear,  because  a 
backbiter  usually  indulges  in  secret  calumnies  in  the  absence  of 
a  person."^  An  apostate  is  converted  into  a  creature  w^ith  the 
head  of  a  man  and  the  body  of  a  serpent. ^^^  The  person  who 
in  life  has  defiled  the  fire  or  the  water  through  some  pollution 
by  means  of  dead  matter  must  in  hell  continually  devour  dead 
matter.^^^  The  man  who  withheld  food  from  the  dogs  in  this 
world  has  to  ofifer  them  bread  in  plenty  in  the  inferno,  but  they 
prefer  to  devour  his  flesh  instead ;  nor  do  they  give  him  a  mo- 
ment's respite.^'^  The  individual  who  has  removed  the  boundary 
stones  of  others  and  usurped  their  lands  has  to  pay  the  penalty 
of  digging  a  hill  with  his  fingers  and  of  carrying  a  mountain  of 
stones  on  his  back.^-^  One  who  has  ill-treated  cattle  is  ever  trod- 
den under  their  feet.^'*  This  method  of  inflicting  punishment 
analogous  to  the  sins  is  so  systematically  carried  out  that  in  cer- 
tain cases  where  the  greater  portion  of  the  body  of  a  sinner  is 
exposed  to  torture  corresponding  to  the  sin  a  single  limb  may 
be  exempted  from  the  punishment,  because  it  served  as  the 
medium  of  doing  some  good.  For  instance,  a  man  whose  whole 
body  was  either  cooked  in  the  caldron  or  was  undergoing  some 
other  torment  had  one  of  his  legs  stretched  out  unmolested, 
because  he  had  either  shoved  a  wisp  of  hay  before  a  hungry 
animal  that  was  tied  and  could  not  reach  it  or  killed  some 
noxious  creatures  with  it.^^^  He  had  not  done  any  other  good 
deed  his  whole  life  long. 

All  conceivable  forms  of  physical  torture  prevail  in  hell. 
Viraf  recounts  the  ghastly  spectacle  he  had  witnessed  in  the 
vision  vouchsafed  him  of  hell.  The  various  kinds  of  most  hideous 
tortures  in  hell  are  so  dreadful  that  the  torments  and  sufferings 
in  this  world  dwindle  into  insignificance  before  them;  and  the 
worst  of  earthly  calamities  and  inflictions  present  but  a  feeble 
and  inadequate  counterpart  to  their  terror.^-*^  Nay,  the  memory 
of  the  miseries  on  earth  is  the  only  joy  for  the  unfortunate 
inmates  of  hell  in  contrast  to  the  torment  they  have  to  undergo 
in  the  inferno.    Viraf  relates  that  the  souls  are  ever  gnawed  by 


""  Mkh.  2.  12. 

^=°  AV.  36.  1-7- 

"'  AV.  38-  1-7;  41-  1-8. 

•"  AV.  48.  1-7- 

"^  AV.  49.  1-9;  50.  1-6. 


""  AV.  75-  1-6. 

"=SIS.  12.  29;  Sd.  4.  3-11;  AV. 

32.  1-6;  60.  1-8. 
""  Dd.  27.  5- 


282  LIFE  AFTER  DEATH 

snakes  and  scorpions,  worms  and  other  noxious  creatures,  flogged 
with  darting  serpents  as  whips  in  the  hands  of  demons,  suspended 
head  downwards  by  one  leg  or  by  the  breasts  in  the  case  of 
women  or,  again,  trodden  under  the  feet  of  cattle.  Iron  spikes 
and  wooden  pegs  are  driven  into  their  eyes;  they  are  made  to 
stand  on  hot  brass  and  compelled  to  lick  a  hot  oven  with  their 
tongues.  A  brazen  caldron  is  constantly  boiling,  and  is  con- 
tinually fed  by  the  tens  of  thousands  of  wretched  souls  flung 
into  it.  Miserable  as  their  lot  is  as  they  are  cooked,  it  is  made 
still  more  miserable  by  the  fact  that  the  fire  that  burns  them 
never  consumes  them.  On  earth  such  miserable  wretches  could 
have  hope  that  a  merciful  death  would  release  them  by  bringing 
an  end  to  their  suffering;  but  even  that  one  solace  is  denied  to 
the  damned,  for  though  the  fire  burns  them  unceasingly,  their 
soul  is  equally  eternal,  and  cannot  therefore  be  annihilated. 

Solitude  in  hell  is  appalling.  One  of  the  miseries  that  the 
souls  have  to  endure  in  hell  is  its  solitude.^-^  The  souls  stand 
as  close  to  one  another  as  the  ear  is  to  the  eye,  but  each  one  feels 
itself  alone  and  solitary ;  and  though  the  souls  be  as  many  in 
number  as  hairs  in  the  mane  of  a  horse,  each  one  feels  that  it  is 
lost  in  solitude,  with  no  eyes  to  see  its  sufferings  and  no  ears 
to  hear  its  groanings.^-*  A  thousand  souls  are  huddled  together 
in  the  short  space  of  a  span,  and  yet  every  one  is  ignorant  of  the 
presence  of  others  besides  itself,  and  considers  itself  thrown  out 
in  the  wilderness. ^-° 

Intensity  of  the  darkness  and  stench  of  hell.  The  infernal 
region  is  the  abode  of  all  darkness.^^'^  The  Avestan  texts  spoke 
of  hell  as  the  abode  of  darkness ;  in  the  Pahlavi  texts  the  con- 
cept is  intensified,  and  the  darkness  is  conceived  of  as  being  so 
dense  that  it  can  be  grasped  by  hand,^^^  and  the  stench  such  that 
it  can  be  cut  with  a  knife.^^^  All  the  wood  in  the  world  put  on 
the  fire  would  not  emit  a  smell  in  this  most  stinking  place."^ 

The  foulest  food  served  to  the  sinners.  The  most  fetid, 
putrid,  and  disgusting  kinds  of  food  are  given  to  the  sinners  in 
hell,^^*  and  these  the  wretched  creatures  devour  in  quantities,  but 
yet    remain    eternally    hungry    and    thirsty.^^^      Brimstone    and 


"'  Dk,  vol.  7,  P-  495-  '"  Bd.  28.  47- 

"«  AV.  54-  5,  8.  "'  AV.  54-  4- 

""  Bd.  28.  47.  "*  Mkh.  2.  190. 

"»  Dd.  Zi-  4-  "'  Dd.  2,2.  8,  9. 
"^  Phi.  Vd.  s.  62;  7.  22;  Mkh.  7.  31. 


LIFE  AFTER  DEATH  283 

lizard,^^*'  poison  and  the  venom  of  snakes,  scorpions,  and  other 
noxious  creatures,^^^  blood  and  filth,  bodily  refuse  and  excrement, 
impurity  and  menstrual  discharge,  dust  and  human  flesh,  dirt 
and  ashes,  form  the  variety  of  dishes  that  the  infernal  caterer 
supplies  to  the  inmates  of  hell.^^^ 

Duration  of  punishment  in  hell,  Mashya  and  Mashyoi,  the 
first  human  couple,  broke  the  divine  commandment  and  lied  unto 
Ahura  Mazda ;  they  were  sent  to  hell,  and  will  remain  there  until 
the  Renovation. ^^^  When  a  convert  from  Zoroastrianism  to  some 
other  faith  dies,  his  soul  is  sentenced  to  the  sufferings  of  hell  until 
the  day  of  Resurrection.^*'*  Punishment  of  long  duration  ^^^  or 
forever  and  eternal  suffering  are  the  expressions  most  frequently 
met  with  in  connection  with  the  duration  of  the  souls  in  hell.^*^ 
This,  however,  refers  only  to  the  end  of  the  cycle,  the  period  of 
Renovation,  when  the  world  will  be  regenerated  and  all  the  sin- 
ners saved  by  the  compassionate  Lord.  Ahura  Mazda  will  not 
allow  even  the  worst  of  the  sinners  to  fall  permanently  into  the 
hands  of  the  Evil  Spirit.^*^ 

The  souls  find  the  time  so  slowly  moving  and  tedious  that 
wdien  they  have  passed  only  three  days  and  nights  in  the  tor- 
ments of  hell,  or  sometimes  even  a  single  day,  they  feel  as  if  nine 
thousand  years  have  elapsed  and  as  if  it  were  already  time  for 
the  day  of  Resurrection  to  come  and  bring  them  release  from 
the  prison  of  the  inferno.^** 


138 
137 
138 


Bd.  28.  48. 
Mkh.  2.  191,  192. 

AV.  20.  I,  2;  23.  1-3;  27.  I,  2;  35.  I,  2;  38.  I,  2;  39.  I,  2;  46.  I,  2; 
51.  I,  2;  59.  I,  2;  83.  i;  91-  i;  98.  I. 
""  Bd.  IS.  9- 
"»  Dd.  41.  6. 
"^  Mkh.  2.  186. 

"'  Dd.  13.  4;  Dk.,  vol.  2,  p.  83;  vol.  3,  p.  141 ;  vol.  4,  pp.  264,  270;  vol. 
6,  pp.  355.  407;  vol.  7,  pp.  432,  495;  Mkh.  2.  193;  40,  31 ;  AV.  64.  13;  87.  9. 
"'  SIS.  8.  23;  Dd.  75.  4;  Sg.  4.  100,  loi ;  12.  59;  Dk.,  vol.  9,  p.  627. 
"'AV.  18.  11;  54.  10,  II. 


CHAPTER  XXXII 
THE  RENOVATION 

Those  who  further  the  work  of  the  final  restoration.  The 
work  of  regenerating  the  world,  which  was  commenced  by 
Gayomard,  the  first  man,  and  was  looked  forward  to  from  the 
time  of  the  Gathas,  will  be  brought  to  completion  and  perfection 
by  Soshyos,  the  last  saviour.^  With  Gayomard  the  curtain  rose 
on  the  human  drama.  It  will  fall  with  the  advent  of  Soshyos. 
Gayomard,  Jamshid,  Zaratusht,  and  all  pious  men  who  have 
worked  for  the  betterment  of  the  universe  are  among  those  that 
help  in  bringing  about  the  final  renovation.-  The  great  work 
proceeds  with  greater  or  lesser  success  according  as  mankind  are 
stronger  or  weaker  in  the  practice  of  righteousness  at  various 
periods.  In  two  of  his  visions  the  prophet  sees  a  tree  with  four 
and  seven  branches  respectively.  The  branches  are  made  of  dif- 
ferent metals  and  represent  the  various  periods  of  the  religious 
history  of  Zoroastrianism.  The  first  and  the  golden  branch  rep- 
resents the  golden  age  of  the  faith  under  King  Gushtasp,  the 
silver  and  the  steel  boughs  symbolize  a  decadence,  while  the 
last,  depicted  by  the  iron  branch,  or  age  of  the  great  catastrophe, 
is  the  period  of  the  final  overthrow  of  the  empire,  the  overwhelm- 
ing cataclysm  that  threatened  to  submerge  the  world  except  for 
the  triumph  of  virtue  and  right. ^  When  the  mighty  work  of  re- 
claiming mankind  from  evil  is  accomplished,  there  will  follow 
the  Renovation  of  the  universe.*  Those  who  work  to  bring 
this  period  nearer  are  said  to  be  holding  communion  with 
Ormazd.^ 

Saviours  born  immaculately.  Ormazd  sends  his  special 
messengers  at  various  periods  of  chaos  and  confusion  to  save  hu- 
manity from  the  clutches  of  Ahriman.*^  This  is  clear  in  the  Gathas 
as  in  the  Younger  Avesta.  These  Messianic  heralds  of  the  real 
truth  to  be  embodied  in  the  final  Soshyos  exemplify  righteousness, 


^  Dk.,  vol.  I,  p.  29.  *  Dk.,  vol.  5,  P-  332. 

"  Dd.  36.  2.  "  Dk.,  vol.  7,  p.  426. 

'  BYt.  I.  2-5 ;  2.  14-22.  *  Dk.,  vol.  i,  p.  29. 

384 


THE  RENOVATION  285 

complete  and  translate  the  abstract  teachings  of  reHgion  into  con- 
crete actions  that  thus  make  the  seemingly  incomprehensible  in- 
telligible and  tangible  to  the  masses.  The  most  prominent  among 
these  leaders  in  the  last  three  millenniums,  as  noted  before,  are 
the  three  sons  that  are  to  be  born  miraculously  to  Zaratusht, 
from  his  seed  through  a  supernatural  conception  by  a  maid, 
bathing  in  the  waters  of  Lake  Kans  (an  idea  as  old  as  Yt.  19), 
and  the  names  of  these  three  ideal  promoters  of  mankind,  as 
perpetuated  in  the  forms  current  during  the  Pahlavi  period,  are 
Hoshedar,  Hoshedar-mah,  and  Soshyos,  who  will  appear  at  an 
interval  of  a  millennium  each.^  It  is  said  that  Zaratusht  went 
three  times  near  unto  his  wife  Hvov,  and  that  each  time  the  seed 
went  to  the  ground.  On  each  of  these  three  occasions,  important 
for  mankind,  the  spiritual  seeds  were  caught  up  by  the  angel 
Neryosangh  and  intrusted  to  the  keeping  of  Ardvisur,  the  divinity 
of  waters,  and  from  these  sanctified  waters  they  will  be  born  in 
time  to  come,  as  miraculously  conceived  at  different  periods  by 
three  virgins.®  The  advent  of  the  all-beneficent  renovators  of  the 
faith  for  the  regeneration  of  the  world  will,  as  we  shall  see  below, 
be  attended  with  portents  and  miraculous  signs. 

The  millennium  of  Hoshedar.  A  child  is  born  to  a  virgin 
named  Shemik-abu  of  the  age  of  fifteen,  who  miraculously  con- 
ceives Zaratusht's  seed  when  she  drinks  the  waters  from  a  pool. 
The  seed  was  emitted  during  the  lifetime  of  Zaratusht  and  lay 
concealed  in  the  waters  until  the  maiden  kindled  the  germs  and 
became  pregnant.^  The  child  thus  immaculately  born  in  the 
first  of  the  three  final  millenniums  of  the  world  is  named 
Hoshedar,  a  later  modified  corrupt  transcript  of  the  Avestan 
Ukhshyat-ereta.  In  the  first  of  the  last  three  thousand  years  of 
the  world,  before  the  final  renovation  and  the  resurrection,  he 
holds,  at  the  age  of  thirty,  a  conference  with  Ormazd  and  receives 
a  revelation.^"  When  he  returns  from  this  divine  conference, 
Hoshedar  makes  the  sun  stand  still  for  ten  days  and  nights  to 
convince  the  people  of  the  world  about  the  authenticity  of  his 
mission. ^^  During  his  millennium,  righteousness,  liberality,  and 
all  the  virtues  supreme  will  be  practised  by  mankind  more  and 

'  Mkh.  2.  95- 
'  Bd.  32.  8. 

*  Dk.,  SBE.,  vol.  47,  bk.  7.  8.  55-57,  pp.  105,  106. 
"  BYt.  3-  44 ;  Dk.,  vol.  8,  p.  485- 

"  BYt.  3-  45,  46 ;  Dk.,  vol.  4,  P-  247 ;  SBE.,  vol.  47,  bk.  7.  9.  2,  pp.  107, 
108. 


286  THE  RENOVATION 

more  as  the  world  slowly  moves  towards  perfection  during  this 
aeon.  Two-thirds  of  the  people  of  Iran,  according  to  the  Pahlavi 
texts,  will  turn  out  righteous.^^  The  wisdom  of  the  religion  will 
constantly  increase,^^  the  poverty  of  the  people  and  the  slaughter 
of  cattle  will  decrease,^*  as  he  is  the  benefactor  that  will  help 
to  remove  the  wickedness  of  the  wolfish  nature  in  mankind.^^ 

The  millennium  of  Hoshedar-mah.  A  maiden  named  Shapir- 
abu  is  destined  to  approach  the  waters  and  conceive  thereby,  again 
through  the  second  seed  of  Zaratusht.  The  virgin  who  has  never 
approached  man  gives  birth  to  a  child  who  is  named  Hoshedar- 
mah,  an  imperfect  rendering  of  the  Avestan  Ukhshyat- 
nemangh,"  who  confers  with  Ormazd.^^  At  the  age  of  thirty 
years  he  announces  his  advent  by  making  the  sun  to  stand  still 
for  twenty  days  and  twenty  nights.^*  His  benign  presence  and 
Messianic  power,  it  is  destined,  will  destroy  the  wicked  product  of 
every  serpentine  and  monster  engendure.^^  Mankind  greatly 
advances  toward  the  realization  of  the  final  goal  of  perfection 
during  this  millennium.  Cattle  give  milk  in  great  quantities.  In 
connection  with  this  millennial  view,  it  may  be  added,  from  the 
Pahlavi  texts  of  this  later  period,  that  the  small  cattle  which  give 
milk  will  give  milk  then  in  redoubled  quantity,  and  a  cow  will 
give  as  much  milk  as  could  be  used  by  a  thousand  men.  Hunger 
and  thirst  decrease,  as  the  world  reaches  nearer  to  its  perfection. 
A  single  meal  will  be  sufficient  to  satisfy  a  man  for  three  days.^" 
Mankind  will  furthermore  become  so  versed  in  the  art  of  heal- 
ing, and  in  the  science  of  physical  culture,  that  they  will  be  able  to 
withstand  disease  and  death  more  successfully.^^  Humility, 
peace,  and  liberality  will  be  now  and  forever  more  zealously 
practised  by  men.^- 

The  millennium  of  Soshyos.  The  world,  according  to  the 
Pahlavi  texts,  which  carry  onward  the  ideal  teachings  of  Zara- 
tusht in  the  Gathas  as  developed  further  in  the  Younger  Avesta, 

"  Dk.,  SBE.,  vol.  47,  bk.  7.  9-  i3,  P-  no. 

"  Dk.,  SBE.,  vol.  47,  bk.  7.  9.  2,  pp.  107,  108. 

"  Dk.,  SEE.,  vol.  47,  bk.  7.  9.  6-1 1,  pp.  loS-iio. 

"  Dk.,  vol.  I,  p.  49;  vol.  2,  p.  128;  vol.  3,  P-  133;  vol.  6,  p.  378. 

"Dk.,  SEE.,  vol.  47,  bk.  7.  9.  18-20,  p.  iii. 

"  Dk.,  vol.  8,  p.  486. 

"  Dk.,  vol.  4,  p.  247;  SEE.,  vol.  47,  bk.  7.  9.  21,  p.  in  ;  10.  2,  pp.  112,  113. 

"  Dk.,  vol.  I,  p.  49;  vol.  2,  p.  128;  vol.  3,  p.  133;  vol.  6,  pp.  378,  379- 

"  Ed.  30.  2;  Dk.,  SEE.,  vol.  47,  bk.  7.  10.  2,  pp.  112,  113. 

"  EYt.  3.  S3. 

"  Dk.,  SEE.,  vol.  47,  bk.  7.  10.  3,  P-  Ii3- 


THE  RENOVATION  287 

is  ever  striving  and  tending  toward  final  betterment,  and  will 
reach  perfection  in  the  millennium  of  Soshyos.  It  needs  only 
the  final  touch  of  this  greatest  of  the  renovators  to  bring  about 
this  result  for  the  eternal  welfare  of  the  universe.  Men  by  this 
time,  when  these  millennial  conditions  have  been  reached,  have 
ceased  eating  meat,  and  subsist  on  milk  and  vegetables.^^  Even 
milk,  according  to  the  Pahlavi  works,  is  gradually  given  up,  and 
water  and  vegetables  form  the  only  food  of  mankind.^*  The 
Bundahishn,  moreover,  adds  that,  before  the  Resurrection  and 
the  Renovation  of  the  universe  occur,  men  will  give  up  milk, 
vegetables,  and  even  water,  and  they  will  ultimately  subsist  with- 
out food  of  any  kind,  and  yet  not  die.^^  Still  another  Pahlavi 
text  states  that  during  the  period  of  the  fifty-seven  years  of  the 
activity  of  this  last  apostle  mankind  will  be  able  to  subsist  for 
seventeen  years  simply  on  vegetables,  then  thirty  on  water  alone, 
and  for  the  last  ten  years  on  spiritual  food.'^ 

At  this  time,  according  to  the  texts,  when  the  world  is  ripe 
to  welcome  the  last  of  the  prophets,  a  virgin  named  Gobak-abu 
conceives  immaculately  the  third  seed  of  Zaratusht  in  the  same 
manner  as  her  two  forerunners  had  done.  At  the  age  of  fifteen 
she  becomes  pregnant  and  gives  birth  to  the  most  illustrious 
Soshyos  in  the  realm  of  Khvaniras.^^  When  the  final  saviour  is 
thirty  years  of  age,  the  sun  stands  still  in  the  zenith  of  the  sky 
for  thirty  days  and  nights ;  ^^  through  his  supernal  power  the 
demoniac  nature  among  men  will  be  broken.-^  He  will  then 
cause  the  Resurrection  and  the  future  existence.^"  His  body, 
which  is  as  radiant  as  the  sun,  partakes  only  of  spiritual  food  and 
he  is  clad  with  kingly  glory.  Around  him  he  looks  with  the  power 
of  six  eyes  and  he  it  is  that  foresees  the  end  of  the  Evil  Spirit.^^ 
He  is  the  greatest  renovator  of  the  world. ^-  He  comes  to  restore 
the  dead  to  life,^^  and  to  bring  final  perfection  to  the  world. ^* 

"  Dk.,  SBE.,  vol.  47,  bk.  7.  10.  8,  p.  114. 

^*  Bd.  30.  I ;  Dk.,  SEE.,  vol.  47,  bk.  7.  10.  9,  p.  114. 

"  Bd.  30.  3. 

Dk.,  SBE.,  vol.  47,  bk.  7.  11.  4,  p.  117. 

Bd.  II.  6;  Dk.,  SBE.,  vol.  47,  bk.  7.  10.  15-18,  p.  115. 

Dk.,  vol.  4,  p.  247;  SBE.,  vol.  47.  bk.  7.  10.  19,  p.  116. 

Dk.,  vol.  6,  p.  379. 

Bd.  II.  6;  Gs.  133. 

Dk.,  SBE.,  vol.  47,  bk.  7.  11.  2,  3,  pp.  116,  117. 

Dk.,  vol.  7,  P-  485. 

Gs.  133. 
*  Dk.,  vol.  I,  p.  29. 


288  THE  RENOVATION 

Any  kind  of  wickedness  that  may  still  be  lingering,  in  spite  of  his 
supreme  beneficence,  will  perish  through  his  presence.^^  The 
angels  will  enable  mankind  to  co-operate  with  the  great  apostle 
Soshyos  to  rout  Druj.^^  In  advance  of  his  divine  mission  to  the 
world  he  has  met  Ormazd  in  conference  and  has  received  the 
supreme  sanction  for  his  task.^^  During  the  fifty-seven  years  of 
his  work,  he  will  drive  out  the  drujes  from  the  world,^^  and  will 
make  the  world  eternally  happy.^^ 

The  collaborators  of  Soshyos.  Ormazd  has  ordained  that 
Soshyos  will  be  helped  by  certain  great  persons  who  have  de- 
parted from  the  world,  but  who  remain  immortal  and  are  still 
living  in  the  body,  and  are  yet  to  exert  sway.  The  chief  among 
these  personages,  potent  for  the  eternal  welfare  of  mankind,  are 
Peshyotan,  Aghrerat,  Parsadga,  Urvatadnar,  Narsih,  Tus,  Giv, 
Ibairaz,  Ashavazd,**^  with  a  thousand  others.^^  Kaikhusru  will 
arise  to  help  Soshyos  in  the  raising  of  the  dead ;  ^-  Peshyotan,  or 
Chitra-mahan,  will  lend  help  with  his  hundred  and  fifty  disciples.*^ 
Still  another  Pahlavi  passage  speaks  of  fifteen  men  and  fifteen 
woman  among  the  living  that  are  to  come  to  the  help  of  Soshyos.** 
They  wall  all  leaven  the  rest  of  mankind.  Zohak,  who  is  put  in 
chains  on  Mount  Demavand,  shall  even  at  the  last  break  loose 
from  the  bonds  in  which  he  has  been  confined,*^  and  as  a 
monster-man  will  return  to  the  world  and  disturb  the  righteous 
creation.*''  At  the  command  of  Ormazd,  his  ministers  Srosh  and 
Neryosangh  approach  the  body  of  Kersasp  and  raise  it  from 
the  dead.  The  hero  then  rises  up  and  slays  Zohak.*^  Soshyos 
and  six  of  his  companions,  Roshn-chashm,  Khur-chashm,  Fradat- 
gadman,  Varedat-gadman,  Kamak-vakhshishn,  and  Kamak-sud, 
all  of  which  names  have  a  spiritual  significance,  will  divide  the 


4 

"Dk.,  vol.  I,  p.  49;  vol.  2,  p.  128. 

30 


Dk.,  vol.  2,  pp.  Ill,  112. 

"  Dk.,  vol.  8,  p.  486. 

^'  lb. 

"^  Dk.,  vol.  9,  p.  617. 

"Bd.  29.  5,  6;  Dd.  36.  3- 

*^  Jsp.,  p.  119. 

"Dd.  36.  3;  Mkh.  27.  59,  63;  57-  7;  Dk.,  vol.  7,  P-  485;  SBE.,  vol.  47, 
bk.  7.  10.  ID,  p.  114. 

"  Dk.,  vol.  5,  p.  275 ;  SBE.,  vol.  47,  bk.  7.  8.  45,  46,  p.  104;  BYt.  3-  27,  29. 

"Bd.  30.  17.  - 

"  BYt.  3-  55,  56. 

"BYt.  3.  57. 

*'  Bd.  29.  7-9 ;  Dd.  36.  3 ;  37-  97 )  BYt.  3.  59-61 ;  Dk.,  SBE.,  vol.  47,  bk. 
7.  10.  10,  p.  114;  vol.  37,  bk.  9.  15.  2,  pp.  198,  199;  Jsp.,  pp.  118,  119. 


THE  RENOVATION  289 

work  between  them,  and  each  of  them  will  act  in  one  of  the 
seven  zones. *^  Every  one  will  miraculously  communicate  with 
the  other  of  his  six  colleagues  in  the  other  zones.  They  will  read 
each  other's  thoughts  from  a  distance  and  will  thus  converse  just 
as  two  men  sitting  close  together  would  do.^^  The  work  of  the 
renovation  of  the  world  will  last  for  fifty-seven  years,  the  number 
already  referred  to.^°  Full  fifty  years  of  this  beneficent  activity 
will  be  devoted  to  the  seventh  zone  Khvaniras,  where  Zaratusht 
himself  was  the  spiritual  chief, '^^  and  where  Soshyos  himself  is 
working.^2  All  evil  will  perish  during  these  fifty-seven  years,  and 
goodness  prevail  among  mankind,  and  men  will  embrace  right- 
eousness and  zealously  practise  religion  before  the  final  raising 
the  dead.*^^  Disease  and  death,  apostasy  and  vice,  depravity  and 
every  fiendish  influence,  will  perish  during  this  period.^*  The 
world  will  be  restored  to  its  primal  state. 

Resurrection  of  the  dead.  The  preliminary  work  of  the 
renovators  is  to  raise  again  to  life  all  those  who  have  died  from 
the  time  of  Gayomard,  the  primeval  man,  down  to  the  last  man 
Soshyos,  and  then  give  them  their  respective  bodies. ^^  It  is 
natural  that  the  world  could  not  at  this  period  be  quite  empty 
of  men.  Those  who  happen  to  be  living  at  the  time  when  the 
period  of  renovation  approaches  near  shall  abstain  from  eating, 
live  without  food,  and  live  so  virtuously  that  even  the  ofifspring 
that  are  born  unto  them  at  this  period  will  be  of  spiritual  nature. 
All  these,  therefore,  will  be  ready  to  enter  the  ranks  of  the  dead 
who  will  now  receive  new  bodies.^" 

The  dead  will  be  made  to  rise  from  the  places  where  they  had 
yielded  up  their  lives  in  the  world. °^  Zaratusht  questions 
Ormazd  in  this  connection,  according  to  the  Pahlavi  texts,-  re- 
garding the  question  of  forming  again  the  bodies  of  the  dead, 
inasmuch  as  the  material  frames  of  the  dead  have  perished  and 
been  reduced  to  dust.^*  Ormazd,  thereupon,  tells  the  prophet 
that  even  as  it  was  possible  for  him  to  have  created  something 
from  nothing,  when  nothing  at  all  existed,  and  as  he  was  able  to 
create  the  sky  and  the  earth,  the  sun  and  the  moon,  and  the  stars, 
fire  and   water,   clouds  and   wind,   grain   and  mankind,   in   fact 

"Dd.  36.  4.  5.  "Dk,  SBE.,  vol.  47,  bk.  7.  H-  4,  5,  P-  ii7- 

^'  Dd.  36.  6.  "  Dk.,  vol.  5.  p.  222. 

'°Bd.  30.  7;  Dd.  36.  5-  "Dd.  35-  1-4- 

"Bd.  29.  2.  "Bd.  30.  7;  SIS.  17.  11-14. 

"  Dd.  36.  7.  "  Bd.  30.  4. 

"  Dk.,  vol.  5,  p.  277. 


290  THE  RENOVATION 

everything  that  formerly  had  no  existence,  it  would  not  be  diffi- 
cult for  him  at  the  Resurrection  to  form  anew  something  that  had 
already  existed.^^  The  spirit  of  the  earth,  the  water,  the  plants, 
and  the  fire  will  at  that  time  restore  the  bones,  blood,  hair,  life, 
and  other  materials  which  had  been  committed  to  them  by  God 
in  the  beginning,  and  in  this  manner  the  bodies  will  be  formed 
anew.^"  And  in  another  Pahlavi  work  it  is  said  that  just  as  it 
is  easier  to  teach  what  once  was  learnt  but  forgotten  than  it  is 
to  teach  that  which  had  never  been  learnt,  and  as  it  is  easier  to 
repair  a  house  than  to  build  a  new  one,  even  so  is  it  easier  to 
bring  to  pass  the  restoration  of  the  creation  than  in  the  beginning 
the  original  creation  out  of  nothing.^^ 

All  those  resurrected  will  be  furnished  with  their  bodily 
frames  by  the  command  of  Ormazd.^^  xhe  first  body  thus  raised 
up  will  be  that  of  Gayomard,  the  father  of  mankind.  Then  will 
follow  the  first  couple,  Mashya  and  Mashyoi,  and  then  the  rest 
of  mankind,  whether  righteous  or  wicked.^^  Exceptions  to  this 
general  statement  are  found  in  other  Pahlavi  texts,  but  the  tone 
is  in  general  the  same.  Men  of  demoniac  nature,  sodomites, 
apostates,  and  the  hateful  Afrasiab  will  not  be  given  their  bodies, 
for  these  arch-enemies  of  religion  are  no  longer  men,  but  have 
converted  themselves  into  fiends  and  must  consequently  share 
the  fate  of  their  class.®* 

Universal  judgment.  A  further  arraignment  at  the  judg- 
ment seat  now  takes  place.  The  righteous  and  the  wicked  souls 
are  now  gathered  together  in  one  place  and  are  subjected  to  the 
collective,  or  universal,  judgment.  Every  soul  at  this  judicial 
session  sees  its  good  and  its  evil  deeds,  and  the  wicked  man 
becomes  as  conspicuous  as  a  white  sheep  among  the  black.®^ 
Ormazd  himself  takes  a  final  and  decisive  account  of  the  souls, 
and  pronounces  definitely  upon  them,  for  he  remembers  in  each 
detail  the  several  individual  judgments  passed  in  connection  with 
every  one  of  the  myriads  of  the  wicked  souls  after  their  death, 
as  well  as  the  just.''®     From  his  judgment  there  is  no  appeal. 

"  Bd.  30.  5. 

Bd.  30.  6. 

Dd.  ZT.  5. 

Dk.,  vol.  6,  p.  359- 

Bd.  30.  7. 

SIS.  17.  7;  Dk.,  vol.  3,  P-  144.      ^  ^^  xt       ^7     i 

°°  Bd.  30.  10 ;  cf.  Jackson,  Persm  Past  and  Present,  p.  75,  New  York, 

1Q06. 

"  Dd.  14.  5- 


60 
61 
62 
63 
64 


THE  RENOVATION  291 

The  souls  called  together  in  this  great  and  last  judicial  assembly 
recognize  each  other  after  the  long  separation.*''^  The  father  sees 
his  son,  and  the  brother  meets  his  sister,  the  husband  greets  his 
wife,  the  relative  welcomes  his  kinsman,  and  the  friend  inquires 
after  the  experience  of  his  friend.  Every  one  eagerly  narrates 
his  or  her  account  of  the  joys  or  sorrows  during  the  long  period 
of  separation  from  their  comrades  of  the  material  world.*'^  The 
wicked  ones  taunt  their  righteous  friends  or  relatives  with  the 
bitter  reproach  that  it  had  not  been  good  on  their  part  to  have 
practised  righteousness  themselves,  and  yet  to  have  left  them 
unwarned  in  the  indulgence  of  vice.®^ '^°  The  righteous  weep  for 
the  wicked,  and  the  wicked  weep  for  themselves  in  the  midst  of 
this  universal  mourning,  while  the  righteous  are  being  sepa- 
rated from  the  wicked  and  sent  back  to  heaven.''^  So  far 
they  had  enjoyed  bliss  and  felicity  in  their  spiritual  condition, 
they  now  enter  heaven  in  body,  and  have  the  satisfaction 
of  seeing  even  the  bodily  grievances  of  their  earthly  life 
adjusted. 

Bodily  punishment.  The  wicked  are  now  cast  back  to  hell, 
where  they  suffer  bodily  punishment  for  three  days.'^^  Hitherto 
their  life  in  hell  was  torment  of  the  spirit,  now  the  very  body 
that  on  earth  was  instrumental  in  bringing  the  spiritual  fall 
of  the  soul  suffers  materially.  It  is  said  that  the  wicked  soul 
suffers  three  kinds  of  punishment  at  three  diffe-ent  periods. 
Firstly,  in  this  world  during  the  earthly  life;  secondly,  in  hell 
from  the  night  after  the  individual's  death  up  to  the  period  of  the 
Renovation  in  spiritual  form;  and  thirdly,  now  for  three  days  in 
hell  in  the  bodily  form.'^^ 

Ordeal  of  molten  metal.  The  final  punishment  of  being 
tortured  in  hell  and  burnt  in  a  river  of  molten  metal  for  three 
nights,  after  Ormazd's  judgment  is  given,  is  in  store  for  the 
wicked  souls.  A  comet  will  fall  from  heaven  and  melt  all  the 
metals  and  minerals  in  the  earth,  and  will  burn  up  the  world  in 
a  general  conflagration.  A  boiling  flood  of  the  metals  of  Shatra- 
var  will  then  flow  over  the  earth,  and  the  righteous  as  well  as  the 
wicked  souls  will  be  made  to  pass  into  it.'^*  In  this  glowing  flood 
the  wicked  souls  will  be  purged  of  their  sins,  so  that  they  be- 

"  Bd.  30.  9.  "  Bd.  30.  13. 

"'  Bd.  30.  21.  "  Phi.  Vd.  7.  52. 

""-'"Bd.  30.  II.  ''Jsp.,  pp.  119,  120. 

"  Bd.  30.  12,  14,  15. 


292  THE  RENOVATION 

come  wholly  purified,"  while  the  righteous  will  feel  as  if  they 
were  walking  in  warm  milk.^^  The  torture  of  the  worst  sinners, 
such  as  Zohak,  Afrasiab,  and  the  rest,  during  these  three  nights 
is  more  intense  than  that  of  all  others."  This  final  conflagration 
brings  freedom  of  the  sinners  from  the  prison  of  hell/^ 

The  righteous  and  the  wicked  shall  no  longer  remain  as 
divided,  but  unite  into  one.  Then,  following  the  great  conflagra- 
tion, there  will  be  the  final  renovation  of  the  world.  The  sinners 
who  have  been  thus  purified  and  purged  of  their  sins  by  the  fiery 
metal  become  worthy  of  eternal  bliss ;  "  and  that  final  punish- 
ment will  absolve  them  of  their  sins.^"  The  entire  creation  of 
Ormazd  now  becomes  virtuous.^^  The  wicked  no  longer  remain 
wicked,^^  but  become  righteous. ^^  The  angels  under  whose 
influence  they  had  done  good  deeds  in  the  world  approach  them 
and  give  joy  to  them  in  the  proportion  of  these  good  deeds. ^*  The 
happiness  of  the  souls  that  were  already  righteous  is  far  greater 
than  that  of  the  wicked  who  had  been  cleansed  through  torture 
and  punishment.^^  The  erring  children  are  now  restored  to  the 
bosom  of  the  Heavenly  Father,  and  Ormazd  now  takes  back  the 
entire  creation  to  himself.^® 

The  removal  of  the  imperfection  of  the  material  bodies  of 
men.  The  completion  of  heavenly  bliss  requires  that  it  be  ever- 
lasting. The  human  soul  is  immortal,  but  the  body  is  not  so. 
Therefore  Soshyos  and  his  companions  prepare  through  an  Izishna 
ceremony  a  nectar  from  the  fat  of  the  ox  Hadhayosh  and  the 
white  Hom  juice,  through  a  draught  of  which  all  beings  become 
immortal  forever  and  everlasting."  Every  one  is  given  an  im- 
mortal body  and  becomes  as  innocent  in  nature  as  cattle.^* 
The  entire  good  creation  is  henceforth  immortal.*''    Any  one  who 

"  Bd.  30.  20;  Dd.  32.  12,  13;  2>7.  no,  in;  Mkh.  21.  10. 

"  Bd.  30.  20. 

"  Bd.  30.  16. 

"  Dk.,  vol.  2,  p.  104 ;  vol.  8,  p   476. 

"Dd.  14.  8;  Dk.,  vol.  5,  P-  ZZ^;  vol.  9,  p.  627. 

*»  Dk.,  vol.  6,  p.  421. 

"  Dk.,  vol.  7,  pp.  458,  469. 

*^  Phi.  Vd.  7.  52. 

*'  Dd.  32.  14- 

"  Dd.  22.  15. 

*Vb„  16. 

^*  Dk.,  vol.  12,  bk.  6.  279,  p.  7. 

"  Bd.  19.  13;  30.  25;  Dd.  37.  119. 

**  Dk.,  vol.  I,  p.  50;  vol.  6,  p.  421. 

*^  Dk.,  vol.  4,  P-  204 ;  vol.  7,  p.  472.  ! 


THE  RENOVATION  293 

was  a  full  grown  man  when  he  had  died  is  given  the  appearance 
of  a  man  of  forty  years  of  age ;  and  those  who  died  at  an  early 
age  are  given  the  stature  of  a  youth  of  fifteen  years.''"  Hus- 
bands and  wives  united  with  their  children  live  together,  even 
as  they  lived  and  acted  in  this  world,  but  there  is  no  begetting 
of  children.^^  Their  existence  in  paradise  is  accompanied  by 
the  full  enjoyment  of  their  reward  for  ever  and  ever.^^  They 
are  hungerless  and  thirstless,  undecaying  and  undying,  undis- 
tressed  and  ever-beneficial.^^  Neither  a  blow,  nor  a  knife,  nor  a 
sword,  nor  a  club,  nor  a  stone,  nor  an  arrow  hurts  the  body,  for 
it  is  now  perfected  and  is  immune  from  pain  of  any  sort.^^  Bodily 
ailments  have  vanished.^^  The  portals  of  eternal  bliss  are  now 
flung  open  to  the  whole  humanity.^'' 

The  last  decisive  battle  between  the  forces  of  good  and 
evil.  Then  will  follow  the  last  and  decisive  battle  of  the  eternal 
war  between  the  rival  armies  of  Ormazd  and  Ahriman.  Every 
one  of  tlie  good  spirits  will  combat  with  his  adversary,  and  in 
every  case  the  success  will  be  on  the  side  of  the  good.  Ormazd 
assails  Ahriman,  Vohuman  seizes  on  Akoman,  Artavahisht  on 
Indar,  Shatravar  on  Sovar,  Spandarmad  on  Taromat  or  Naong- 
has,  Khurdad  and  Amardad  on  Tairev  and  Zairich,  Truth  on 
Falsehood,  and  Srosh  on  Eshm.^^  Druj  will  perish.^*  Hell  itself 
is  burnt  out.  Ormazd  comes  down  to  the  world  and  acts  as  the 
Zota,  sacrificial  priest,  together  with  Srosh  as  his  Raspi,  and  holds 
the  sacred  thread-girdle  in  his  hands.  The  holy  formulas  con- 
found the  Evil  Spirit,  who,  now  impotent,  rushes  back  to  dark- 
ness by  the  same  passage  through  which  he  had  come  out  at 
the  beginning  of  creation.®^ 

Demon  and  fiend,  deceit  and  falsehood,  strife  and  anger, 
hatred  and  ill-temper,  pain  and  disease,  want  and  greediness, 
shame  and  fear,  all  perish.^°°  Evil  of  every  kind  disappears,  and 
good  of  every  kind  is  perfected.^"^  Ormazd  at  last  becomes 
completely  predominant,^''^  and  his  kingdom  of  Righteousness  is 
built  upon  the  earth. 

Humanity  attunes  its  will  to  the  will  of  Ormazd.  All 
men  now  become  of  one  wilF°^  and  remain  of  one  accord  in  the 


""Jsp.,  p.  120.  "'Dk,  vol.  4,  p.  234-  ""Dd.  z-/.  120,  121. 

"  Bd.  30.  26.  '"  Dk.,  vol.  5,  p.  ZZ^-  "'  Dd.  yj.  122. 

"'  Bd.  30.  27.  "'  Bd.  30.  29.  "'  Dd.  7.  3. 

»'  Dd.  37.  119.  "'  Dk.,  vol.  6,  p.  421.  "'  Dd.  yj.  127. 

""  Dd.  zi-  122-125.  ""  Bd.  30.  30. 


294  THE  RENOVATION 

faith  of  Ormazd,^"*  giving  voice  in  song  to  the  Glory  of  their 
Lord.^°^  On  no  account  will  their  will  be  in  conflict  with  the 
divine  will,  but  will  ever  coincide  with  it.^°^  They  now  live  in 
the  blessed  company  of  Ormazd,^°^  and  work  to  exalt  his  glory. 

""Dk.,  SBE.,  vol.  47,  bk.  7-  n.  6,  p.  117.        "'  Dk.,  vol.  5,  P-  332. 
""  Bd.  30.  23.  "'  Dk.,  vol.  8,  p.  436. 


A    PERIOD    OF    DECADENCE 

FROM   THE   SEVENTH    TO    THE    EIGHTEENTH 

CENTURY 


CHAPTER  XXXIII 

DOWNFALL  OF  THE  SASANIANS,  AND  THE    . 

AFTERMATH 

Iran  sinks  before  the  hordes  of  Arabs-  The  death  of  Khusru 
Parviz,  who  had  waged  the  last  war  in  the  standing  rivalry  with 
the  West,  heralded  the  collapse  of  the  Persian  empire.  The 
death-knell  of  the  national  greatness  had  been  struck  when  with 
the  advent  of  the  weak  kings  on  the  throne  the  commanders,  who 
felt  the  allegiance  of  the  army  to  them  rather  than  to  the  person 
of  the  king,  persuaded  the  army  to  revolt.  Rival  princes  strove 
to  assert  their  respective  rights  to  the  throne.  Court  intrigues 
and  strifes  became  rife.  The  long  wars  with  the  Romans  in 
the  far  West  and  the  Eastern  hordes  near  at  home,  whose 
inroads  were  facilitated  by  the  unfavourable  geographical  posi- 
tion of  Persia,  had  exhausted  the  national  resources.  Famine 
and  plague  had  extended  their  ravages  over  the  whole  country. 
Unbridled  luxury,  with  all  its  concomitant  vices,  was  imported 
from  foreign  lands,  and  the  simplicity  of  life  inculcated  by  Zara- 
thushtra  and  zealously  upheld  by  the  Dasturs  was  abandoned. 
The  masses  did  not  escape  the  contagion  of  the  luxury  and  vice 
of  the  nobility,  and  the  love  of  simplicity  was  replaced  by  a 
feverish  worship  of  pleasure.  The  simple  habits  fostered  by 
agricultural  pursuits  were  on  the  wane ;  and  the  entire  social 
fabric  of  Iran  was  seriously  dislocated.  The  springs  of  patriotism 
were  sapped,  and  the  bravery  with  which  the  Persians  of  old  had 
faced  their  national  foes  was  weakened.  The  age  of  valour  had 
given  place  to  an  age  of  weakness  and  decay. 

These  causes  aggravated  the  downfall  of  Iran  and  foreshad- 
owed the  coming  catastrophe,  and  there  was  none  to  come  out  as 
a  saviour  in  this  the  darkest  period  of  the  nation's  agony,  so  as  to 
avert  the  impending  ruin.  In  the  midst  of  this  chaos  and  con- 
fusion, Yazdagard  III,  the  last  of  the  illustrious  house  of  Sasan, 
sat  on  the  tottering  throne.  The  nomads  of  the  deserts  of  Arabia 
were  for  the  first  time  knit  into  a  nation  by  the  new  faith.    Pul- 

297 


298  DOWNFALL  OF  THE  SASANIANS 

sating  with  the  vigour  and  zeal  of  youth,  and  frenzied  by  the  sud- 
den rise  of  fortune,  the  host  of  these  formidable  foes  overran  Iran 
in  the  first  half  of  the  seventh  century;  and  the  decisive  battles 
of  Qadisiya  and  Nihavand  sealed  her  fate.  The  Kingly  Glory 
that  had  guarded  the  fortunes  of  the  nation  had  flown  away,  and 
the  star  of  Islam  had  risen.  The  Crescent  superseded  the  Kava 
banner,  Shahinshah  was  followed  by  Caliph,  Ormazd  was  re- 
placed by  Allah.  Zaratusht  gave  place  to  Muhammad,  the 
Koran  supplanted  the  Avesta,  and  the  thrilling  cry  of  the 
Muazzin  from  the  minaret  of  the  mosque  drowned  the  intona- 
tions of  the  Mobad  at  the  altar  in  the  fire-temple. 

Persecution  and  conversion.  The  Iranian  nation  now  broke 
into  pieces.  There  was  not  the  remotest  chance  of  its  ever  rising 
to  power  again.  Confusion  and  chaos  became  rampant.  The 
sufferings  wrought  on  the  faithful  by  the  conquering  hordes 
defy  description.  Tens  of  thousands  embraced  Islam,  and  threw 
in  their  lot  with  the  conquerors  to  find  relief  from  the  persecution 
that  raged  around  them.  Those  that  were  more  devoted  to  the 
national  faith  resolved  to  stick  to  it  at  any  cost.  In  this  they  were 
imitating  their  prophet  who,  when  tempted  by  Ahriman  to  re- 
nounce the  good  Mazdayasnian  religion,  had  said  that  he  would 
not  do  so  even  to  save  his  body  or  his  life.^  The  inevitable 
had  come,  but  they  could  not  afford  to  resign  themselves  to  it. 
If  they  fostered  the  spirit  of  resignation  and  despair,  they  would 
be  wiped  away  from  the  surface  of  the  earth  in  the  intense 
struggle  for  existence.  Zoroastrianism  inspired  them  from  within 
to  assert  themselves,  even  in  the  face  of  disheartening  obstacles 
of  such  magnitude  and  the  fear  of  coming  calamities  that  were 
ever  imminent.  If  Ahriman  had  reduced  them  to  such  an  abject 
state,  it  was  cowardice  to  succumb  to  his  doing.  It  was  heroic  to 
revolt  against  it. 

The  frequent  ravages  caused  by  the  inroads  of  the  Tartar 
and  Turk,  Mongol  and  Afghan  hordes  added  to  the  hardships 
of  the  Iranians.  Persecutions  checkered  their  progress.  Cen- 
tury after  century  their  number  decreased  by  repeated  con- 
versions to  Islam.  Writing  to  their  coreligionists  in  India  in  the 
fifteenth  century,  they  complain  that  ever  since  the  overthrow 
of  the  empire  they  are  living  under  such  troublesome  times  that 
the  atrocities   of  a  Zohak,   or  an   Afrasiab,   or  an  Alexander, 

'Vd.  19.  7. 


DOWNFALL  OF  THE  SASANIANS  299 

pale  before  what  they  have  been  suffering  for  nine  centuries.^ 
The  unfortunate  people  were  denied  freedom  of  thought,  safety 
of  life  and  property,  and  human  justice  up  to  the  end  of  the  last 
century.  They  retired  within  themselves,  became  effeminate, 
and  struggled  to  eke  out  an  unhappy  existence.  They  slept  smart- 
ing under  the  indignities  inflicted  on  them  during  the  day,  were 
haunted  by  the  spectre  of  persecution  in  their  dreams,  and 
awoke  in  the  morning  with  gloomy  thoughts  of  the  impending 
morrow.  At  best  they  were  suffered  to  exist,  they  could  not 
live  humanly.  This  was  the  veritable  iron  age  of  Zoroastrianism 
and  its  followers,  spoken  of  in  the  Bahman  Yasht.  Zoroastrian- 
ism has  struggled  for  its  very  existence  during  this  period  in 
Persia,  and  its  followers  during  such  troublous  times  had  to 
practise  their  religious  rites  by  stealth. 

Almost  every  vestige  of  Iranian  scholarship  perishes.  The 
literary  edifice  of  Iran  had  crumbled  along  with  the  empire,  after 
the  invasion  of  Alexander  the  Great.  What  little  the  nation  was 
able  to  restore  during  the  Sasanian  period  fell  now  once  more 
before  the  devastating  fury  of  the  Arabs.  Iranian  culture 
never  truly  emerged  from  the  shock  of  this  final  blow.  We  meet 
with  occasional  attempts  on  the  part  of  the  priests  to  save  the 
literary  tradition  from  extinction.  The  fall  of  the  Umayyads 
and  the  ascendency  of  the  Abbasid  Caliphs  in  749,  which  suc- 
ceeded in  supplanting  the  Arab  supremacy  by  a  Persian  power, 
gave  the  Zoroastrians  a  favourable  opportunity  of  peacefully  con- 
ducting their  literary  activities ;  and  some  of  the  important 
Pahlavi  works  that  have  come  down  to  us  were  produced 
during  this  period,  more  particularly  in  the  reign  of  al-Mamun 
(a.d.  813-833).  After  that  era  the  literary  activity  appears  to 
have  been  arrested,  for  no  original  works  were  produced  that 
can  be  assigned  to  the  period  following.  The  work  of  copying 
manuscripts,  however,  was  carried  on  up  to  modern  times, 
and  it  is  owing  to  the  zealous  activity  of  faithful  adherents  to  the 
cause  that  the  ancient  works  have  reached  us. 

A  glimpse  into  the  religious  life  of  the  Iranians  during  the 
centuries  that  followed.  From  this  period  onward  we  have  very 
little  knowledge  of  the  religious  life  of  the  stray  remnants  of 
Zoroastrians  in  Persia.  The  insufficiency  of  the  data  prevents  us 
from  forming  any  very  clear  opinion  about  their  beliefs.     What 

*  Patell,  Parsi  Prakash,  vol.  i.,  p.  6,  Bombay,  1888. 


300  DOWNFALL  OF  THE  SASANIANS 

little  information  we  have  of  this  period  comes  mostly  from  the 
Muhammadan  writers. 

Al-Biruni,  who  flourished  about  a.d.  iooo,  gives  some  scattered 
information  on  miscellaneous  matters  of  religious  practices,  which 
he  gathered  from  the  Zoroastrians  of  his  day.  We  shall  select 
some  points  of  interest  from  his  description.  The  angel  Srosh, 
he  notes,  is  spoken  of  as  the  most  powerful  angel  against  the 
sorcerers,  and  he  visits  the  world  three  times  during  the  night 
to  rout  them.  It  was  Srosh  who  introduced  the  practice  of 
Zamzama,  that  is,  reciting  one's  prayers  with  closed  lips  and 
emitting  inarticulate  sounds  or  in  baj,  as  the  Zoroastrians  do  to 
this  present  day.  Artavahisht,  as  the  genius  of  fire  and  light, 
watches  over  mankind,  he  says,  and  heals  diseases  with  drugs, 
but  besides  this,  as  the  genius  who  presides  at  the  ordeal  by 
fire,  distinguishes  a  truth-speaking  man  from  a  liar.^  We 
have  already  seen  that  by  the  end  of  the  Pahlavi  period  the  sharp 
distinction  between  man's  soul  and  his  Farohar  was  forgotten, 
and  both  were  regarded  as  one  and  the  same.  Commenting  upon 
the  observance  of  the  Fravardigan  festival,  or  the  days  set  apart 
for  the  propitiation  of  the  Farohars,  in  his  own  time,  al-Biruni 
says  that  the  Zoroastrians  believed  that  the  souls  of  the  dead, 
both  righteous  and  wicked,  descended  to  the  earth  during  these 
ten  days.  They,  therefore,  fumigated  the  houses  with  juniper, 
and  put  dishes  of  food  and  drink  on  the  roofs  of  their  houses, 
in  the  pious  expectation  that  the  souls  would  inhale  their  savour 
and  receive  nourishment  and  comfort.  The  pious  souls,  more- 
over, assumed  invisible  forms,  dwelt  among  their  relatives,  and 
took  part  in  their  affairs.*  Spandarmad,  he  observes,  is  the 
guardian  of  the  earth  and  of  chaste  women  who  are  devoted  to 
their  husbands.  On  the  fifth  day  of  the  twelfth  month,  both 
of  which  take  their  names  after  this  archangel,  the  author  says 
people  write  a  charm  on  three  pieces  of  paper  to  scare  away  the 
noxious  creatures  and  fix  them  on  three  walls  of  the  house." 
The  custom  lingers  in  some  Parsi  families  in  India  up  to  this 
day.  People  get  a  Pahlavi  incantation  written  by  the  priests, 
preferably  in  red,  and  stick  it  to  the  front  door  of  their  houses. 
Zoroastrianism  never  enjoined  days  of  fast,  and  we  have  already 
seen  from  the  Pahlavi  works  that  fasting  was  regarded  a  sin. 

'  Chronology,  tr.  Sachau,  p.  204,  London.  1879. 
*  lb.,  p.  210. 
'  Ih.,  p.  216. 


DOWNFALL  OF  THE  SASANIANS  301 

The  injunction  not  to  fast  seems  to  have  been  faithfully  followed, 
for  al-Biruni  attests  that  he  who  observed  a  fast  was  compelled 
to  feed  some  needy  persons  by  way  of  expiation  for  his  sin.° 

We  have  already  seen  that  the  religious  dissensions  during 
the  Parthian  and  Sasanian  periods  had  racked  the  Zoroastrian 
world.  Sects  and  heresies  had  sprung  up  in  consequence.  Sev- 
eral of  these  flourished  in  Iran  for  centuries  after  the  downfall 
of  the  Persian  empire.  Shahristani  (a.d.  1086-1153)  in  his  Book 
of  Sects  attests  the  existence  of  some  of  these  in  his  times.  The 
more  prominent  of  these  were  the  Mazdakites,  Zarvanites,  and  the 
Gayomarthians.  The  latter  sect,  about  which  we  hear  for  the 
first  time,  evidently  derived  its  name  from  Gayomard,  the 
primeval  man.  The  followers  of  this  sect,  we  are  told,  believe 
in  an  eternal  being  who  is  called  Yazdan.  This  first  principle,  it 
is  said,  existed  when  there  was  nothing  beside  him  ;  he  entertained 
a  thought  in  his  mind  on  the  probability  of  the  origin  of  an 
adversary.  This  evil  thought  originated  Ahriman,  the  spirit  of 
darkness.  Ever  since  the  manifestation  of  this  evil  one,  there 
goes  on  a  fierce  war  between  the  powers  of  light  and  darkness.^ 

This  appears  to  be  still  another  attempt  to  palliate  dualism 
which  has  ever  been  the  crux  of  Zoroastrianism.  The  question 
comes  up  time  after  time  and  was  the  cause  of  many  sectarian 
divisions  among  the  believers.  Worshipping  two  Gods  must 
have  been  the  taunt  hurled  at  the  doctors  of  the  Zoroastrian 
Church  by  the  Moslem  divines.  Those  among  the  Mazdayasnians 
who  seem  to  have  viewed  dualism  as  a  flaw  in  their  religious 
system  apparently  endeavoured  to  give  it  a  monistic  form  by 
declaring  that  Yazdan  originated  Ahriman. 

The  Zoroastrian  author  of  the  Ulama-i  Islam,  a  controversial 
treatise  in  Persian,  written  in  about  the  fourteenth  century,  ac- 
quaints us  with  the  different  opinions  held  in  his  own  day,  to 
account  for  this  ever-recurring  problem.  Himself  a  Zarvanite, 
the  author  attests  the  existence  of  several  different  sects,  who 
variously  held  that  both  Ormazd  and  Ahriman  have  originated 
from  Time,  or  that  Ormazd  himself  permitted  evil  to  exist  in 
order  that  his  goodness  might  be  better  appreciated,  or  that 
Ahriman  was  a  reprobate  angel  who  revolted  from  Ormazd.^ 

"lb.,  p.  217. 

'  Haarbriicker,  Religionspartheien  und  Philosophenschtilen,  i,  pp.  276, 

277,  Halle,  1850. 

'Tr.  Vullers,  p.  52,  Bonn,  1831;  tr.  Blochet,  p.  22,  Pans,  1898. 


302  DOWNFALL  OF  THE  SASANIANS 

A  Persian  treatise  entitled  Siwgr-i  Akalim-i  Sab'ah,  or  Sketches 
of  Seven  Countries,  composed  at  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  states  that  the  Magi  beheve  God  and  Ibhs  to  be  two 
brothers.  A  thousand  years  of  the  world  are  a  cycle  of  God, 
and  a  thousand  of  Satan.^ 

The  Rivayat  literature,  a  collection  of  questions  and  answers 
on  ritual  observances  exchanged  between  the  Parsis  of  India  and 
their  coreligionists  in  Persia,  between  the  fifteenth  and  eighteenth 
centuries,  enables  us  to  gain  an  insight  into  the  theological  beliefs 
of  the  Zoroastrians  of  Persia  during  that  time,  and  as  these 
Rivayats  were  compiled  in  India,  we  shall  recur  to  them  when 
we  discuss  the  Indian  period. 

The  Zoroastrian  community  in  Persia,  during  these  cen- 
turies, lay  steeped  in  the  grossest  ignorance  and  darkness. 
Although  the  condition  of  the  Zoroastrians  in  their  fatherland  had 
been  growing  more  and  more  precarious,  they  still  had  succeeded, 
amid  chaos  and  confusion,  in  maintaining  for  a  considerably  long 
time  their  superiority  over  their  Indian  coreligionists  in  the  knowl- 
edge of  their  sacred  literature.  We  shall  see  in  the  subsequent 
pages  how  the  Indian  Parsis  had  to  look  to  the  Iranians  for 
enlightenment  in  religious  matters.  The  learned  Iranian  Mobad 
Jamasp,  who  came  from  Kerman  to  Surat  in  1721,  found  the 
state  of  the  intelligence  of  the  Zoroastrian  priests  in  India  so 
low  that  he  resolved  to  impart  religious  instruction  to  some  of 
the  leading  high  priests  during  the  period  of  his  stay  in  the  land. 
The  Dasturs  of  Surat,  Navsari,  and  Broach  consequently  became 
his  disciples;  ^°  and  the  first  of  these,  Dastur  Darab,  later  became 
the  teacher  of  Anquetil  du  Perron.  But  the  times  later  changed. 
Zoroastrian  scholarship  could  not  thrive  in  Persia,  as  it  was  able 
to  do  under  the  conditions  in  India.  The  mother-country  to- 
day has  to  look  to  her  thriving  children  living  in  India  for 
religious  instruction,  and  for  masters  from  the  adopted  land 
able  to  teach  the  Zoroastrian  Persians  themselves,  as  Persia  has 
not  been  in  a  position  for  more  than  a  hundred  years  to  give  any 
real  instruction  to  the  Indian  Parsis,  or  to  produce  any  literary 
work  that  would  throw  light  on  their  sacred  books.  Zoroaster's 
teachings  had,  for  a  century,  been  losing  their  hold  upon  the 
community  of  the  faithful   in   Iran.     When  the  representative 

'  Eng.  tr.  by  Yohannan  and  Jackson  in  JAOS.,  vol.  28,  pp.  183-188. 
*"  Patell,  Parsi  Prakash,  vol.  i,  pp.  22,,  24,  Bombay,  1888. 


DOWNFALL  OF  THE  SASANIANS  303 

of  the  Society  for  the  Amelioration  of  the  Zoroastrians  in  Persia, 
founded  by  the  munificence  of  the  Parsis  of  India,  first  visited 
Persia  in  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  he  found  persons  of  full 
age  living  without  the  sacred  shirt  and  girdle,  the  indispensable 
marks  of  a  Zoroastrian.  He  saw  them  smoking  tobacco  without 
any  compunction.     Superstition  had  been  rampant. 

It  was  manifest  the  pristine  purity  of  the  faith  had  departed 
with  the  greatness  and  glory  of  the  Iranian  nation.  The  sacred 
fire,  kindled  by  the  holy  prophet  in  the  remote  past,  was  still 
there,  it  is  true,  but  the  demon  Az  had  stretched  his  icy  hands 
to  extinguish  it,  leaving  the  fire  of  Ormazd  only  smouldering  in 
ashes  upon  the  altar.  Nevertheless,  though  shorn  of  its  innate 
radiance,  its  sparks  were  not  quenched,  and  its  ashes  were  still 
hot;  only  a  Tansar  or  an  Adarbad  was  needed  to  fan  it  into 
a  flame. 

Such  has  been  the  tale  of  sorrow  and  suffering  of  the  group 
that  chose  to  remain  behind  their  enterprising  coreligionists  who, 
engendered  by  a  spirit  of  adventure,  set  sail  for  India  and  planted 
their  colonies  in  Gujarat.  Different  is  the  story  that  the  Indian 
group  has  to  tell  us.  It  is  one  of  phenomenal  progress,  un- 
precedented prosperity,  social  regeneration,  and  religious  revival. 
To  this  we  shall  now  turn. 


CHAPTER  XXXIV 
EXODUS  TO  INDIA 

The  Deva-worshippers  of  India  greet  the  Daeva-abjurers 
of  Iran.  After  the  collapse  of  the  house  of  Sasan,  several 
hundreds  of  the  adventurous  people,  not  finding  any  human 
court  in  which  to  lodge  their  complaints,  resolved  to  abandon 
their  fatherland  in  quest  of  a  more  peaceful  home,  where  they 
could  practise  their  faith  with  a  liberty  of  conscience  so  ruth- 
lessly denied  them  by  their  conquerors.  A  burning  passion  for 
their  ancient  home  and  love  for  liberty  of  conscience  clashed. 
The  latter  conquered  and  a  noble  band  of  Iranian  exiles  now 
streamed  to  India  in  successive  waves.  Here  they  found  an 
asylum.  India,  the  land  of  the  devas,  magnanimously  welcomed 
the  fugitives  of  Iran,  whose  religion  had  branded  their  devas  as 
evil.  The  fire  of  Ormazd  found  a  hospitable  hearth  in  the  new 
land  which  the  early  Parsi  settlers  adopted  as  their  home.  The 
Parsi  atharvan  tended  his  sacred  fire,  even  as  the  Hindu  atharvan 
did  his  in  the  next  street.  The  Parsi  Mobad  performed  the 
Yasna  ceremony  and  squeezed  the  Haoma  plant,  as  his  Hindu 
Brahman  neighbour  practised  his  Yasna  rites  and  pounded  Soma. 

Reviling  each  other's  gods,  yet  living  peacefully  together. 
We  have  already  seen  that  the  points  of  difference  between  the 
religious  beliefs  of  the  two  nations  are  as  many  as  are  the  points 
of  resemblance  between  them.  This  is  seen  in  the  daily  practices 
of  the  two  peoples.  The  Hindu  rises  in  the  morning  to  begin 
his  day's  work  with  the  devout  utterance  of  devas  on  his  lips, 
the  Parsi  leaves  his  bed  cursing  them.  One  seeks  their  help, 
the  other  does  battle  to  them.  One  invokes  them  with  his  up- 
lifted hands,  the  other  lashes  them  with  his  sacred  girdle.  The 
Hindu  anathematizes  the  asuras  as  the  infernal  beings,  the  Parsi 
pays  his  homage  to  the  ahuras  as  the  celestial  beings.  Such  is  the 
manner  in  which  the  Indian  and  Iranian  branches  of  the  Aryan 
family  have  behaved  towards  each  other  for  over  a  thousand 
years  in  India  where  they  met  each  other  once  more  after  the 

304 


EXODUS  TO  INDIA  305 

long  ages  of  separation.  This  is  certainly  a  most  curious  phe- 
nomenon in  the  religious  history  of  the  world,  and  without  a 
parallel  case,  in  which  two  friendly  peoples  living  close  together 
incessantly  revile  each  other's  gods  without  in  the  least  impair- 
ing their  friendly  relations. 

A  period  of  literary  arrest.  The  unsettled  times  that  fol- 
lowed the  first  settlement  of  the  Parsis  in  India  were  unfavour- 
able to  literary  activity.  Centuries  full  of  hardships  intervened 
before  Zoroastrianism  gained  a  real  foothold  in  India  and  secured 
for  its  adherents  some  means  of  livelihood  in  this  new  country 
of  their  adoption.  Severe  was  the  struggle  and  terrible  was  the 
trial  of  the  faithful  throughout  the  vicissitudes  of  all  this  early 
period.  Poverty,  an  insurmountable  barrier  to  progress  of  any 
kind,  haunted  the  faithful  followers  of  Zoroaster  for  a  long 
time.  When  we  look  at  the  condition  of  the  times,  it  is  no 
wonder  that  the  literary  movement  among  the  Parsis  was  arrested 
for  a  considerable  interval  before  these  emigrants  succeeded  in 
adapting  themselves  to  the  changed  circumstances  in  which  they 
were  placed.  Religious  knowledge  orally  transmitted  from  gen- 
eration to  generation,  however,  kept  alive  the  native  tradition ; 
but  no  written  works  have  come  down  to  us  of  this  period. 
With  our  slender  resources  we  are  unable  to  ascertain  the  precise 
scope  of  the  literary  activity  of  the  first  five  or  six  centuries  of 
Parsi  settlement  in  India. 

Pahlavi  studies.  After  an  absolute  blank  extending  over  a 
period  of  three  centuries,  we  come  across  the  only  literary  com- 
positions of  this  period  in  the  form  of  the  Pahlavi  inscriptions 
in  one  of  the  Kanheri  caves  near  Bombay,  which  record  the 
two  visits  of  some  Parsi  travellers  in  1009  and  1021  a.d.^ 
Pahlavi  seems  to  have  long  remained  the  literary  language  of 
the  learned  Zoroastrian  priests  in  India ;  and  the  traditional 
knowledge  of  the  language  had  not  become  extinct.  Though 
the  insufficiency  of  data  prevents  us  from  saying  anything  with 
certainty,  we  cannot  be  wide  of  the  truth  when  we  say  that  a 
number  of  learned  priests  had  with  unflagging  zeal  kept  the 
torch  of  Iranian  scholarship  burning.  The  masterly  Sanskrit 
version  of  the  Pahlavi  texts  done  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth 
centuries  is  an  eloquent  evidence  of  this. 

^  West,  The  Pahlavi  Inscriptions  at  Kanheri,  in  Indian  Antiquary,  9. 
265-8,  Bombay,   1880. 


3o6  EXODUS  TO  INDIA 

Parsi-Sanskrit  literature.  Some  of  the  Parsi  scholars,  who 
frequently  came  in  contact  with  the  learned  Brahmans,  seem  to 
have  adopted  Sanskrit,  the  learned  language  of  the  land,  for 
their  literary  productions.  The  extant  Parsi  literature  produced 
in  this  tongue  comprises  the  translation  into  Sanskrit  of  the 
greater  part  of  the  Avestan  Yasna,  Khordah  Avesta,  and 
Aogemadaecha,  based  on  their  Pahlavi  versions ;  also  a  Sanskrit 
translation  of  the  Pahlavi  works  Menuk-i  Khrat,  Shikand 
Gumanik  Vijar,  and  Arda  Viraf  Namah,  and  the  Sanskrit  version 
of  the  Pazand  Ashirvad.  The  most  illustrious  representative  of 
this  group  of  Parsi  Sanskritists  is  Neryosangh  Dhaval,  who 
flourished  about  1200  a.d.  He  has  been  one  of  the  most  eminent 
doctors  of  the  Parsi  church  in  India,  and  has  made  the  versions 
of  the  major  portion  of  the  Zoroastrian  work  that  has  come  down 
to  us  accompanied  by  a  Sanskrit  version.  We  shall  not  pause  here 
to  consider  the  question  of  the  literary  merit  of  this  particular 
form  of  the  literature,  as  that  lies  beyond  the  pale  of  the  present 
work.  As  the  Sanskrit  works  are  merely  the  faithful  translations 
of  the  Pahlavi  texts,  and  not  any  original  compositions,  we  look 
in  vain  in  them  for  any  side-information  on  the  religious  thought 
of  this  period.  What  we  do  find  from  them  is  the  fact  that  the 
religious  studies  were  prosecuted  with  great  zeal  at  this  period, 
and  that  the  knowledge  of  Avestan  in  general,  and  of  Pahlavi 
and  Sanskrit  in  particular,  among  the  learned  clerics  was  of  a 
superior  order. 


CHAPTER  XXXV 

RIVAYATS 

Persian  Rivayats,  or  codes  of  usages  and  rituals.  We  have 
again  to  pass  over  a  period  of  about  three  centuries,  or  from 
about  the  thirteenth  century  to  the  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  before  we  come  across  some  further  record  of  literary 
activity.  After  the  convulsions  that  the  small  band  of  fugitives 
experienced,  they  had  settled  down  as  the  tillers  of  the  fields, 
sellers  of  liquor  and  toddy,  as  minor  traders  and  merchants,  or 
as  members  of  petty  professions.  By  this  time,  however,  the 
Parsis  of  Gujarat  had  begun  fairly  to  prosper.  Some  of  them 
had  even  succeeded  in  building  up  modest  fortunes,  and  had 
spread  abroad  their  fame  for  liberality.  This  beginning  of  the 
economic  welfare  of  the  community  shows  the  first  signs  of  the 
new  life,  and  among  these  signs  was  the  fact  that  the  community 
began  eagerly  to  turn  its  attention  to  the  necessity  of  gaining 
authentic  information  of  the  religious  questions  about  which  they 
were  in  doubt.  The  Parsis  of  India  thought  that  their  co- 
religionists living  in  Persia  must  be  better  informed  on  religious 
matters  than  themselves,  and  must  have  preserved  the  old-time 
tradition  more  faithfully  than  they  themselves  did.  They  there- 
fore drew  up  certain  religious  questions  on  which  they  needed 
enlightenment,  and  in  1478  commissioned  a  daring  Parsi  to  go  to 
Persia  and  lay  their  questions  before  the  learned  Dasturs  of  their 
fatherland.  The  news  that  a  band  of  fugitives  lived  in  India 
who  were  one  in  faith  with  them,  and  shared  their  common  tradi- 
tions, had  long  since  filtered  through  to  the  Zoroastrians  of  Persia. 
In  fact  it  is  possible  that  the  connection  between  the  two  bands  of 
the  faithful,  though  imperfect,  had  never  been  quite  broken. 
Intercourse  through  trade,  as  well  as  other  factors,  must  have 
helped  to  keep  up  some  connection.  Great,  therefore,  was  the 
enthusiasm  caused  by  the  fresh  opening  of  a  closer  communica- 
tion with  them;  and  for  nearly  three  centuries  (1478-1766)  a 
more  immediate  interchange   of  views  took  place  between  the 

307 


3o8  RIVAYATS 

Zoroastrians  of  India  and  Persia.  No  less  than  twenty-two 
messengers  had  left  India  during  this  period  with  questions  per- 
taining to  ritual  observances,  ceremonial  ablutions,  purificatory 
rites,  forms  of  worship,  rules  of  adoption  and  marriage,  and 
other  miscellaneous  subjects.  These  collections  of  traditions, 
customs,  and  rites,  arranged  in  the  form  of  questions  and  answers, 
are  composed  in  Persian,  which  became  the  literary  language  of 
the  Parsi  scholars  under  the  influence  of  the  Moslem  rule  of 
Gujarat.  These  compilations  are  called  Rivayats,  and  provide 
a  wealth  of  information  on  liturgical  and  social  matters.  Side 
by  side  with  a  score  of  important  subjects,  the  disquisitions 
sometimes  fall  to  the  level  of  barren  theological  disputations. 
Among  such  discussions,  for  example,  were  points  like  these : 
Whether  the  Avestan  texts  could  be  copied  with  ink  prepared  by 
a  non-Zoroastrian,  whether  the  faithful  be  polluted  by  conversing 
with  the  non-Zoroastrians  while  they  are  carrying  a  dead  body, 
whether  a  Mobad  who  has  eaten  clarified  butter  prepared  by  a 
non-Zoroastrian  can  ever  regain  bodily  purity  by  means  of  cere- 
monial ablutions. 

Theology  of  the  period.  Bundahishn  and  Sad  Dar,  Jamaspi, 
and  Arda  Viraf  Namah  inspired  the  clergy  and  laity  in  their  con- 
duct of  life  at  this  period  rather  than  did  the  Gathas  and  other 
Avestan  works.  The  formal  rather  than  the  spiritual,  the  con- 
crete rather  than  the  abstract,  seem  to  be  the  prominent  feature 
of  the  beliefs  that  we  can  glean  from  the  Rivayats.  The  hope 
of  the  joys  of  a  materialized  heaven  and  the  fear  of  the  suffer- 
ings of  a  physical  hell  guide  and  control  man's  life  upon  earth. 
Man's  soul  and  his  Farohar  are  taken,  in  the  Rivayats,  for  one 
and  the  same.  The  souls  and  not  the  Farohars  are  believed 
to  come  down  on  earth  on  their  monthly  or  yearly  anniversaries.'- 
The  souls  of  the  righteous  persons  descend  on  earth  and  remain 
here  for  full  ten  days  of  the  Farohar  festival,  but  the  souls  of 
the  wicked  ones  are  given  only  five  days'  leave  of  absence  from 
hell  to  visit  their  earthly  homes.^  If  the  souls  are  properly 
propitiated,  they  rejoice  and  bless ;  if  not,  they  complain  and 
curse.^  It  came  to  be  believed  that  the  Yasna  sacrifices  offered 
in  the  name  of  the  Farohars,  or  of  the  angel  Hom,  or  those  of 
Zaratusht,  Gushtasp,  and  other  sainted  dead  persons,  could  thwart 

^  Mehrji  Rana,  Rivayat-i  Darab  Hormuzdiar,  pp.  39,  40. 

*  Rv.  p.  63. 

*  Rv.  pp.  40,  41. 


RIVAYATS  309 

the  evil  designs  of  their  enemies ;  could  rout  the  demons  and 
fairies ;  could  oppose  the  tyrant  kings ;  could  withstand  famine 
and  plague,  retard  the  evil  consequences  of  bad  dreams,  gain 
favour  of  kings  and  noblemen,  and  secure  various  advantages.* 
We  are  informed,  moreover,  that  the  reason  of  consecrating  a 
set  of  white  garments  on  the  fourth  day  after  death  is  to  provide 
a  corresponding  heavenly  garment  to  the  soul  in  the  next  world ; 
because,  we  are  told,  the  soul  is  cjuite  naked,  when  it  is  liberated 
from  body  at  death,  and  is  naturally  ashamed  to  enter  the 
assembly  of  the  heavenly  souls  who  are  all  clad  in  fine  raiment. 
The  souls  are  awarded  heavenly  garments  in  proportion  to  what 
is  consecrated  to  them  by  their  kinsmen  in  this  world.  The 
richer  the  quality  of  the  garment  consecrated  here,  the  finer  the 
raiment  bestowed  upon  the  soul  in  heaven.^ 

Bull's  urine,  or  golden  water,  as  it  is  now  called,  has  been  an 
indispensable  article  in  the  purificatory  rites  and  ceremonial 
ablutions  among  the  Zoroastrians  from  the  earliest  times.  From 
the  strong  belief  in  the  efficacy  of  its  giving  external  bodily 
purification,  it  was  but  a  step  to  the  idea  of  attributing  to  it  the 
power  of  purifying  the  internal  nature  of  man.  A  most  extrava- 
gant sanctity  came  to  be  attached  to  the  drinking  of  it.  Elaborate 
rituals  are  now  performed  over  the  liquid,  and  the  drinking  of  this 
■  consecrated  fluid  forms  an  indissoluble  part  of  certain  Zoroastrian 
ceremonials.  The  Rivayats  tell  us  that  the  drink  gives  divine 
glory,  and  makes  man's  inner  nature  as  bright  and  pure  as  the 
sun ;  nay,  this  sanctified  liquid  is  the  very  life  of  religion.® 

Bull's  urine  has  been,  since  ancient  times,  an  essential  auxiliary 
of  spells  or  formulas  used  to  exorcise  those  possessed  by  evil 
powers ;  but  the  original  Avestan  and  Pahlavi  word  gaomaesa  or 
gomes  fell  into  disuse  by  the  Rivayat  time,  and  the  term  nirang, 
which  originally  meant  spell  only,  now  signifies  both  spell  and 
bull's  urine,  and  henceforth  conveys  both  the  meanings. 

The  incantations  of  the  Pazand  and  Persian  Nirangs  or 
formulas  were  used  to  deprecate  evil,  to  rout  the  malignant 
demons  of  disease,  to  remove  barrenness  in  women,  to  ward  off 
the  fear  of  thieves  and  robbers,  to  put  down  sorcery  and  witch- 
craft, to  preserve  a  child  from  the  evil  eye,  to  exorcise  persons 
possessed  of  ghosts  and  goblins,  and  to  cure  all  kinds  of  sickness. 
Charms  inscribed  with  such  spells  and  tied  on  the  left  hand  of 

*  Rv.  pp.  97,  98.  "  Rv.  pp.  347,  348-  '  Rv.  p.  45- 


310  RIVAYATS 

a  child  made  it  wise  and  dutiful.  The  same  tied  on  the  left  arm 
of  a  refractory  wife  brought  her  on  her  knees  before  her  hus- 
band. The  faithful  strove  to  gain  health  and  wealth  by  virtue  of 
the  recital  of  these  formulas.  These  secured  them  the  good- will 
of  great  persons  in  this  world  and  divine  grace  in  the  next  world. 
Such  in  general  is  the  view  we  may  gather  from  the  Rivayats 
regarding  the  conditions  prevailing  in  that  period. 


CHAPTER  XXXVI 
MYSTICS  AND  MYSTICISM 

Desatir  and  Dabistsin.  In  the  early  part  of  the  last  century 
appeared  the  text  and  translation  of  the  Desatir,  alleged  to  have 
a  heavenly  origin,  and  to  have  been  written  down  in  the  reign 
of  Khusru  Parviz  and  thus  to  throw  a  flood  of  light  on  Zoro- 
astrianism.  A  very  heated  controversy  was  the  result  of  the 
appearance  of  this  work.  One  party  of  eminent  European 
scholars  declared  it  to  be  a  fraudulent  forgery,  while  others  of 
equal  eminence  endeavoured  to  prove  its  authenticity.  The 
claim  of  the  Desatir  to  have  been  written  in  a  celestial  language 
was  put  to  a  crucial  test.  Patient  research  has  since  declared 
the  book  to  be  an  exotic,  outside  the  pale  of  Zoroastrianism. 
And  so  it  has  been  held  ever  since  by  all  Iranian  scholars  both 
of  East  and  West. 

In  this  work  are  given  the  teachings  of  various  mystic  schools, 
and  the  entire  treatise  breathes  a  totally  different  atmosphere  from 
that  of  the  genuine  Zoroastrian  works,  being  divergent  in  tone 
from  the  true  spirit  from  its  very  beginning  to  its  close.  The  Iran- 
ian scriptures  of  all  periods  have  recognized  Gayomard  as  the  pri- 
meval man,  who  was  the  progenitor  of  the  human  race,  and  who, 
first  among  mortals,  heard  the  divine  word  of  Ormazd.^  But  this 
work,  on  the  contrary,  gives  a  regular  hierarchy  of  prophets  who 
are  supposed  to  have  preceded  the  first  man.  God  first  revealed 
his  secrets  to  one  Mahabad,  who  was  followed  by  thirteen  other 
prophets  in  the  former  cycles  of  time  bearing  his  name.  Through 
them  the  supposed  revelation  came  down  to  Gayomard  and  his 
descendants.  It  is  alleged  in  this  book,  moreover,  that  all  the 
early  Peshdadian  kings  conformed  to  this  religion  of  Mahabad, 
until  the  time  that  Zoroaster  came  and  preached  his  funda- 
mentally new  religion.  But  even  the  new  prophet's  religion, 
we  are  told,  was  so  glossed  over  by  the  Yazdanians,  the  followers 

^  Yt.  13.  87. 
3" 


312  MYSTICS  AND  MYSTICISM 

of  Mahabad,  that  Zoroastrianism  was  ultimately  made  to  con- 
form to  the  Mahabadian  code.^ 

Another  Persian  work  entitled  Dahistan,  or  School  of  Man- 
ners, written  in  India  by  Mohsan  Fani  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
draws  the  greater  part  of  its  materials  from  the  Desatir.  The 
author  of  this  composition  mentions  some  fourteen  sects  into 
which  he  finds  the  Zoroastrians  of  his  day  divided.  These  are 
the  Sipasian,  Abadian,  Jamshaspian,  Samradian,  Khodaiyan, 
Radian,  Shidrangian,  Paikarian,  Milanian,  Alarian,  Shidabian, 
Akhshiyan,  Zardushtian,  and  Mazdakian.  Several  of  these  sects 
are  stated  to  have  flourished  from  very  remote  times,  going  back 
to  the  Pahlavi  and  Avestan  periods,  nay  stretching  even  back  to 
a  period  of  which  history  has  not  a  word  to  tell.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  these  two  works,  however,  we  have  no  inkling  of 
other  sects  in  the  genuine  Iranian  texts.  The  statements  con- 
tained in  them  are  not  corroborated  by  any  authority  in  the  writ- 
ings of  the  Zoroastrian  priests.  They  do  not  mention  them  by 
name,  they  are  entirely  unaware  of  their  existence.  The  account 
of  the  majority  of  these  sects,  as  found  in  the  Dabistan,  is  very 
meagre.  We  meet  with  some  attempts  in  them  to  explain  the 
primordial  principle  from  which  creation  came  into  being,  and 
we  have  some  sort  of  crude  metaphysics  grafted  on  physics. 
Sun,  fire,  air,  nature,  water,  and  earth  are  alternately  put  for- 
ward as  having  been  the  physical  sources  of  existence  according 
to  various  schools  of  thinkers.^  Others  still  preach  a  strict 
monism,  and  assume  that  the  world  of  phenomena  was  caused 
by  illusion.^  The  teachings  of  the  Yazdanians  and  others  are 
characterized  by  a  belief  in  metempsychosis,  as  well  as  in  the 
efficacy  of  rigorous  austerities  and  ascetic  virtues.  Our  present 
concern,  however,  is  with  the  author's  account  of  the  Zoroastrian 
mystics,  and  we  shall  now  turn  to  the  matter  immediately. 

Zoroastrian  mystics.  At  this  period  we  meet  with  some 
Parsi  thinkers  who  were  not  satisfied  with  the  formal  side  of 
religion,  and  looked  with  indifference  upon  the  ritual  observances. 
Outward  formalism  and  literal  interpretation  of  the  teachings 
of  the  prophet  failed  to  meet  with  the  longings  of  these  men  of 
mystic  temperament.  They  ever  remained  in  search  of  mysteries 
hidden  beneath  the  outward  garb  of  dogmas  and  rituals.     The 

^  Dahistan,  tr.  Shea  and  Troyer,  vol.  i,  p.  30,  Paris,  1843- 
^  Vol.  I,  pp.  202-207. 
*  Ih.,  vol..  I,  p.  195. 


MYSTICS  AND  MYSTICISM  313 

exoterics  had  said  in  effect :  '  Thus  far  and  no  further,  for  beyond 
the  veil  of  mystery  the  human  mind  cannot  penetrate.'  On  the 
other  hand,  the  esoterics  had  asserted  with  confidence  that  with 
discipHne  and  meditation  they  could  lift  up  the  veil  and  peer 
into  the  hidden  secrets.  Not  satisfied  with  discarding,  as  illusive, 
the  experience  and  knowledge  gathered  through  the  senses,  the 
latter  questioned  the  authority  of  reason  as  the  ultimate  source 
of  knowledge.  Intuition  was  extolled  above  reason.  Reason,  they 
urged,  was  not  capable  of  comprehending  Ormazd.  To  attempt 
to  see  him  through  the  medium  of  reason  was  to  lose  him.  All 
knowledge  was  relative,  therefore  the  only  way  to  know  God 
was  by  getting  out  of  the  region  of  the  ordinary  senses.  Human 
intelligence  was  debarred  from  entering  this  inner  sphere. 
Though  reason  might  conduct  the  adept  to  the  divine  portal, 
intuition  alone  could  enable  him  to  penetrate  into  the  sanctuary 
and  have  a  vision  of  Ormazd.  This  transcendental  insight  would 
give  him  a  supra-rational  apprehension  of  divine  wisdom.  Truth 
would  dawn  thus  upon  him,  and  shine  in  its  effulgence,  while  an 
ecstatic  insight  would  be  aroused  in  him  and  in  a  moment  of 
ecstasy,  when  the  devotee  would  transcend  all  self-consciousness, 
the  wave  of  the  occult  light  would  surge  in  upon  him,  and  the 
mysterious  something  would  sweep,  like  a  meteor,  over  his  soul, 
giving  a  sudden  flash  that  would  illumine  the  inner  world.  The 
nightingale  in  its  transport  of  joy  sings  to  the  glory  of  God, 
until  it  becomes  half  frenzied.  When  the  mystic  is  bathed  in 
devotion,  he  is  so  intoxicated  with  divine  wisdom  that  he  thinks 
himself  one  with  the  Divine.  In  this  condition  the  devotee  does 
not  meditate  upon  God,  he  feels  him ;  he  does  not  think  of  God, 
he  owns  him.  The  Parsi  priesthood  could  not  satisfy  the  wants 
of  such  ecstatic  enthusiasts.  They  revolted  from  authority,  and 
set  about  thinking  for  themselves.  These  dissenters  as  a  body 
lived  a  life  different  from  that  led  by  their  neighbours.  Many 
of  themi  found  consolation  in  the  teachings  of  the  Hindu  Yogis 
and  became  their  willing  disciples.  Under  these  circumstances 
we  have  to  turn  to  the  Dabistan  for  the  general  information  of 
this  sect,  as  the  historic  Parsi  works  are  inexplicably  silent  over 
the  question  and  do  not  even  notice  its  existence. 

Azar  Kaivan  and  his  disciples.  The  author  of  the  Dabistan 
gives  us  an  elaborate  account  of  the  Zoroastrian  mystics  whom 
he  met  in  Patna,  in  Kashmir,  and  in  Lahore  during  the  seven- 


314  MYSTICS  AND  MYSTICISM 

teenth  century.^  The  most  illustrious  of  these  mystic  teachers 
was  Dastur  Azar  Kaivan,  who  came  from  Persia  and  settled  in 
Patna,®  and  lived  for  years  in  seclusion  far  from  the  public  gaze.'^ 
Some  of  the  most  prominent  disciples  of  this  recluse  sage  were 
the  Mobads  Farzan  Bahram  of  Shiraz,  Hushiyyar  of  Surat, 
Sarosh,  and  Khuda  Jui.  They  extravagantly  trace  their  lineage 
back  to  Mahabad,  to  Sam,  Godrej,  Rustam,  Jamasp,  Zoroaster, 
and  Noshirvan.  Let  us  now  pass  on  to  a  brief  notice  of  the 
literary  activity  of  these  hermit  priests. 

Mystic  literature  during  the  century.  These  Parsi  mystics 
composed  several  treatises  in  Persian,  which,  as  we  have  already 
seen,  was  the  literary  medium  of  this  period.  Among  the  more 
important  works  that  have  thus  come  down  to  us  are  Jam-i 
Kaikhusru,  Makashefat-i  Kaivani,  Khishtab,  Zaredasht  Afshar, 
and  Zindah  Rud.  The  authors  of  the  last  three  allege  that  their 
works  are  translations  into  Persian  from  the  original  Pahlavi 
books  written  in  the  days  of  the  Sasanian  kings  Hormaz  and 
Khusru  Parviz.  A  search  through  the  literary  content  of  these 
writings,  however,  shows  that  their  philosophical  dissertations 
mostly  reproduce  the  teachings  of  Greek  philosophy,  current  in 
India  in  the  seventeenth  century  through  its  Arabic  version.  For 
instance,  the  Khishtab  opens  with  the  prophet  Mahabad's  de- 
scriptions of  the  four  generative  principles  of  things,  which  are 
nothing  else  but  the  material,  formal,  efficient,  and  final  causes 
of  Aristotle.  The  authors  fantastically  credit  the  legendary  and 
real  kings  and  princes  of  Persia  with  the  philosophical  ideas, 
which  on  very  little  examination  can  easily  be  traced  to  their 
original  Greek  sources.  These  royal  personages  are  styled 
prophets  or  seers  and  depicted  as  advancing  some  original  argu- 
ment for  the  proof  of  the  existence  of  God,  of  his  eternal  attri- 
butes, and  regarding  other  kindred  subjects.  Even  the  warrior 
heroes  Zal  and  Rustam  seem  occasionally  to  have  proclaimed  a 
truce  to  warfare,  and  to  have  devoutly  sat  down  in  more  peaceful 
pursuit  of  metaphysical  investigations ;  for  some  of  the  philo- 
sophical disquisitions  stand  in  their  names  too. 

The  alleged  tw^ofold  meaning  of  the  Avesta.  These  esoteric 
interpreters  of  the  sacred  works  asserted  that  Zoroaster  had 
couched   his   teachings    in    figurative   and   enigmatic   language.** 

'Vol.  I,  io8,  115,  118,  119,  122,  123;  vol.  3,  204.        ''Db.,  vol.  I,  93. 
•  Db.,  vol.  I,  89.  '  Db.,  vol.  I,  361. 


MYSTICS  AND  MYSTICISM  3i5 

The  Zoroastrian  scriptures  were  accordingly  divided  into  '  Great 
Zend '  and  '  Little  Zend,'  ^  the  first  being  followed  by  the  adepts 
and  initiates,  and  the  second  by  the  masses.  The  figurative  lan- 
guage of  the  former  hid  the  deeper  truths  from  the  ignorant. 

The  author,  then,  cites  some  instances  and  explains  the  dif- 
ferences between  the  exoteric  and  esoteric  interpretations  of  the 
Avestan  texts.  For  instance,  when  it  is  said  that  the  archangel 
Bahman  held  a  conference  with  Zoroaster  and  asked  him  to 
close  his  eyes,  the  vulgar,  according  to  the  Dabistan,  understand 
that  Bahman  assumed  human  form  and  addressed  the  prophet  like 
a  mortal ;  but  the  adept  is  to  understand  by  this  that  the  true 
essence  of  man  was  uncompounded,  and  that  under  such  a  state 
Bahman  manifested  himself  before  Zoroaster,  and  his  asking  the 
prophet  to  close  his  eyes  means  only  that  the  spirit  asked  him  to 
eradicate  all  bodily  attachments  and  suppress  carnal  desires  of 
the  flesh  in  order  to  enable  him  to  get  a  vision  of  the  archangel.^" 
When  the  Zoroastrian  texts  seem  to  sanction  animal  slaughter, 
it  is  to  be  understood  as  an  injunction  to  kill  the  animal  pro- 
pensities inherent  in  man.^^  The  author  states  further  that  the 
passages  which  speak  of  the  hermits  as  partaking  of  animal  food 
in  reasonable  bounds  are  not  to  be  taken  literally.  These  simply 
refer  to  the  gradual  control  and  ultimate  killing  of  the  animal 
nature  in  man.^^  The  legend  that  Ahriman  appeared  at  a  season 
festival  in  the  guise  of  a  glutton  and  devoured  everything  to  the 
utter  confusion  of  the  assembly,  until  he  was  routed  by  pre- 
paring a  dish  from  the  flesh  of  a  certain  red  cow,  mixed  with 
vinegar,  garlic,  and  rue,  at  the  instance  of  some  miraculous  advice, 
may  be  taken  by  the  masses  as  literally  true.  But  any  one 
versed  in  esoteric  wisdom,  and  acquainted  with  the  doctrines 
inculcated  by  the  Dabistan,  knows  that  the  killing  of  the  red  cow 
stands  for  the  suppression  of  the  sensual  appetite,  vinegar  for  the 
virtue  of  abstinence,  garlic  for  reflection,  and  rue  for  silent 
meditation.  All  these  would  kill  Ahrimanian  propensities  in 
man.^^  The  ignorant  invest  Ahriman  with  a  personality;  but, 
really  speaking,  he  has  no  independent  existence,  for  he  is  not 
an  entity,  and  is  simply  the  negation  of  existence.^*  The  aggre- 
gate  of   bodily  passions   and   sensual   appetites   is   symbolically 

*  Db.,  vol.  I,  352.  "  Db.,  vol.  I,  240. 

"  Db.,  vol.  I,  233,  234.  "  Db.,  vol.  I,  349,  350. 

"  Db.,  vol.  I,  6s,  66,  74,  75.  "  Db.,  vol.  i,  360. 


3i6  MYSTICS  AND  MYSTICISM 

termed  Ahriman,  named  from  the  originator  of  evil,^^  and 
Ahriman's  predominance  in  the  world  is  to^  exist  only  for  a 
limited  time  while  the  tumult  of  youth  in  man  and  the  bodily  pas- 
sions in  man  are  in  the  ascendency  and  until  they  are  ultimately 
curbed  and  eradicated."  Again,  the  sacred  books  speak  of 
Ahriman  as  the  creator  of  serpents  and  scorpions.  But  these 
noxious  creatures,  according  to  this  treatise,  are  nothing  but 
allegorical  expressions  for  the  vices  and  passions  that  haunt  the 
human  mind."  All  such  persons  as  stick  to  the  exoteric  interpre- 
tation of  the  scriptures  believe  that  Zohak  actually  carried  two 
serpents  on  his  shoulders,  but  the  adept  understands  the  statement 
as  applying  to  the  venomous  tyranny  and  sensuality  of  the  wicked 
usurper.^*  The  legend  of  the  flight  of  King  Kaus  to  the  heavens, 
his  fall,  and  the  subsequent  restoration  of  this  lost  monarch  to 
his  kingdom  by  Rustam,  has  likewise  an  esoteric  interpretation. 
The  four  eagles  that  carried  the  misguided  king  high  up  in  the 
air,  along  with  his  throne,  signify  the  four  elements.  The  throne, 
explains  the  author,  stands  for  the  predominant  bodily  passions, 
the  ascent  means  that  a  devotee  can  rise  to  a  higher  plane  of 
existence  by  a  life  of  abstinence  and  austerity,  the  fall  denotes 
the  revolt  of  the  passions  owing  to  some  neglect  in  the  observance 
of  the  ascetic  practices,  while  Rustam's  achievement,  in  finally 
bringing  Kaus  back  from  the  forest,  indicates  the  flash  of  proper 
knowledge  that  reclaims  the  erring  aspirant  from  fatal  mishap.^" 
Thus  the  esoteric  writings  veil  the  truth  from  the  gaze  of  the 
vulgar.  The  real  and  deep  meaning  is  hidden  within  the  outer 
husks ;  and  only  he  who  grasps  this  inner  meaning  can  attain 
to  insight  into  the  secret  doctrine.  This  in  fact  is  a  summary 
of  the  mystic  teachings  of  the  Parsi  ascetics  in  the  Dabistan, 
based  evidently  upon  the  earlier  doctrines  of  Sufism  and  developed 
under  Hindu  mystic  influences  in  India. 

Ascetic  practices  of  the  Parsi  mystics.  The  hermits  prac- 
tised celibacy.-"  They  abstained  from  animal  food,^^  and  reduced 
the  quantity  of  their  daily  food,  until  many  of  them  could  live 
on  food  weighing  ten  dirhams,  or  a  fraction  of  an  ounce,  a  day,^^ 
or  in  some  cases  on  only  one  such   unit.-^     Some  could   live 

"Db.,  vol.  I,  360,  361.  "Db.,  vol.  I,  113. 

"Db.,  vol.   I,  357-359-  "  Db.,  vol.  i,  95,  96,  113,  118;  vol.  3,  205,  206. 

"  Db.,  vol.   I,  360.  "  Db.,  vol.  I,  76,  TJ,  120. 

"  Db.,  vol.  I,  55.  "  Db.,  vol.   I,  -JT,  88. 

"  Db.,  vol.  I,  56,  57. 


MYSTICS  AND  MYSTICISM  317 

without  any  kind  of  food  or  drink  for  two  or  three  days  in  suc- 
cession.-'* Such  devotees  practised  many  kinds  of  austerities ;  ^^ 
and  all  of  these  mortifications  of  the  flesh  were  undergone  in 
religious  imitation  of  their  Hindu  brethren.  The  chief  among 
such  austerities  were  those  of  supporting  themselves  on  the 
extremities  of  their  fingers  from  midnight  until  dawn,-''  and  of 
standing  on  the  head  with  the  feet  raised  in  the  air  from  nightfall 
unto  sunrise.-^  By  rigorous  discipline  some  such  religious  en- 
thusiasts, we  are  told,  attained  the  power  of  suppressing  their 
breath  for  three  hours,^^  or  even  for  twelve.-^  They  would  thus 
swoon  away  into  a  state  of  trance,^°  in  which  respiration  and 
breathing  were  totally  suspended,  and  by  this  utter  self-abnegation 
the  adepts  reached  the  borders  of  utter  selflessness.  Mobad 
Hushiyyar,  once  plunged  into  deep  water  and  remained  under- 
neath for  full  six  hours  before  he  raised  his  head  above  the 
surface. ^^  These  devotees,  like  the  Indian  Yogis,  as  shown 
below,  are  credited  with  the  power  of  quitting  the  bodily  frame 
at  pleasure,  traversing  the  spiritual  regions,  and  returning  to  the 
body  whenever  they  liked.^-  They  laid  claim  to  read  the  thoughts 
of  others.^^  They  are  further  fantastically  credited  with  the 
superhuman  power  of  performing  miracles ;  such  as  causing  the 
sun  to  hide  his  disk  and  appear  at  night,  or  the  stars  to  appear 
during  the  day,  walking  on  the  surface  of  water,  showing  them- 
selves in  the  form  of  lightning  in  the  heavens,  metamorphosing 
animals,  rendering  themselves  invisible  to  man,  assuming  various 
forms, ^*  appearing  at  one  and  the  same  time  at  distant  places, 
bringing  the  dead  to  life,  or  causing  the  death  of  the  living,  pro- 
ducing food  and  wine  from  nothing,^^  causing  the  rains  to  fall 
or  to  cease,  producing  giants  to  frighten  others,  converting 
broken  pottery  into  gold,^''  disporting  in  the  midst  of  a  burning 
fire,  or  swallowing  it,^'  and  such  like. 

Unmistakable  influence  of  Hindu  Yogism.  All  this  self- 
mortification  of  the  body  and  the  assumption  of  occult  powers 
sounds  unfamiliar  to  Zoroastrian  ears.  The  whole  fabric  of  the 
ascetic  and  unworldly  view  of  life  is  in  direct  antagonism  to  the 

"  Db.,  vol.  I,  122,  123.  "  Db.,  vol.  I,  124. 

"Db.,  vol.  I,  89,  108,  120;  vol.  3,  204.  "Db..  vol.  i,  85.  86,  93,  108,  127. 

"Dl)..  vol.  I,  113.  "Db.,  vol.   I,   109,   116. 

"  Db.,  vol.  I,  123.  "  Db.,  vol.  I,  107,  108. 

"Db.,  vol.  I,  III.  "Db.,  vol.  I,  114. 

"Db.,  vol.  I,  118.  "Db.,  vol.  I,   IIS,   116. 

="Db.,  vol.  I,  84,  85.  "Db.,  vol.  I,  117. 


3i8  MYSTICS  AND  MYSTICISM 

active  and,  in  the  best  sense,  worldly  spirit  of  the  Mazdayasnian 
faith.  In  its  every  detail,  as  indicated  above,  the  Parsi  mystic 
school  savours  of  the  strong  influence  of  the  Indian  Yogis.  The 
Parsi  ascetics  of  that  period  seem  to  have  been  in  close  acquaint- 
ance with  the  Hindu  hermits.  The  author  of  the  Dabistan  informs 
us  that  Mobad  Hushiyyar  conducted  him  to  see  some  of  these 
Hindu  ascetics,^^  and  he  speaks  equally  of  Parsi  adepts  who 
were  in  constant  touch  with  such  Hindu  monks. ^^  He  further 
mentions  a  Parsi  ascetic  who  moved  about  in  Gujarat  clad  in 
the  garments  of  a  Hindu  hermit,*"  and  who  visited  the  great 
Sikh  saint.  Guru  Har  Govind.*^  Hirbad,  a  great  Parsi  mystic, 
moreover,  gave  instructions  to  his  disciple,  Mobad  Hushiyyar, 
either  to  bum  or  to  bury  his  body,  when  dead,*^  because  it  mat- 
tered not  whether  a  corpse  was  consigned  to  the  fire  or  to  the 
earth."  Every  one  of  these  details  shows  the  total  indifference  on 
the  part  of  these  dissenters  to  what  was  really  true  of  Zoro- 
astrian  observance. 

'*  Db..  vol.  2,  137,  145. 

'"  Db.,  vol.  2,  146. 

"  Db.,  vol.  2,  192,  193. 

"  Db.,  vol.  2,  280,  281. 

"  Db.,  vol.  3,  208. 

"  Desatir,  tr.  by  Mulla  Firuz,  vol.  2,  p.  29,  Bombay,  1818. 


CHAPTER  XXXVII 
RELIGIOUS  CONTROVERSIES 

Theological  disputations.  We  find  from  the  extant  Persian 
literature  that  the  writers  of  this  period  occupied  themselves  in 
minute  quibbling  and  barren  discussions  of  the  rituaHstic  cere- 
monies and  purificatory  rites.  There  is  no  trace  of  original 
thinking  on  vital  problems.  Their  energy  was  wholly  expended 
on  endless  wranglings  about  dogmas  and  theological  disquisitions. 
Questions  were  raised  whether  it  was  essential  to  cover  the  face 
of  a  corpse  with  the  penom,  or  mouth-covering  white  veil ;  whether 
the  legs  of  a  corpse  should  be  folded  or  left  lengthwise,  before  it 
was  removed  to  its  final  resting-place.^  The  community  was  ac- 
tually divided  into  two  parties  over  the  first  question,  and  so  bitter 
was  the  feeling  aroused  that  at  Surat  the  corpses  without  such 
coverings  were  refused  a  resting-place  in  the  Tower  of  Silence. 
The  relatives  of  the  dead  had  under  these  circumstances  to 
carry  dead  bodies  to  Navsari  for  their  final  disposal.  This  re- 
sulted in  the  erection  of  separate  towers  for  the  contending 
parties. 

Intercalation  controversy  provides  a  powerful  incentive  to 
the  study  of  the  ancient  Zoroastrian  scriptures.  In  1720  were 
planted  seeds  of  a  controversy  which  gave,  however,  a  real  and 
abiding  impetus  to  religious  studies.  A  learned  Mobad  named 
Jamasp,  who  came  to  India  from  Persia,  in  1721,  found  that  the 
Indian  Parsis  were  one  month  behind  the  Zoroastrians  of  Persia 
in  the  calculation  of  their  year,  and  he  strongly  advocated  a 
reform  in  the  matter.  The  question  did  not  at  first  arouse  much 
attention,  but  later  it  developed  into  a  serious  problem  that  led 
to  a  display  of  strong  passion  and  to  the  exchange  of  bitter  words 
on  both  sides  in  the  community.  Learned  priests  in  each  party 
zealously  turned  to  the  study  of  the  original  scriptures,  as  a 
source  to  decide  the  matter,  and  the  question  was  threshed  out 
in  detail,  accompanied  by  the  publication  of  innumerable  tracts 

^  Patell,  Parsi  Prakash,  i.  23,  Bombay,  1888. 

319 


320  RELIGIOUS  CONTROVERSIES 

and  pamphlets.  While  the  learned  in  the  community  were  thus 
engaged  in  ransacking  their  ancient  records,  the  masses  took  up 
the  controversy  acrimoniously,  resorting  to  abuses  and  sometimes 
even  to  blows.  The  Shahinshahis,  or  the  Imperials,  represented 
the  old  order,  and  the  dissenters  styled  themselves  the  Kadimis, 
or  the  Ancients.  The  former  annoyed  the  latter  by  their  mocking 
derision.  Social  intercourse  between  the  two  became  most 
strained,  the  community  was  split  into  two  sects,  and  separate 
places  of  worship  were  founded.  The  division  of  the  community 
into  two  sects  endures  to  the  present  day,  but  despite  the 
differences  obtaining  between  the  two,  time  and  the  growth  of 
education  have  obliterated  the  bitter  feelings.  Modem  researches 
have  proved  that  both  the  parties  were  wrong  in  their  calcula- 
tions. The  accidentals  of  the  controversy  have  changed  during 
the  long  period  of  hard-fought  battles,  but  the  main  question  has 
still  remained  as  unsettled  as  before.  Among  the  chief  causes 
that  have  contributed  to  the  indefinite  postponement  of  the  re- 
form are  the  indifference  and  apathy  of  the  community.  The 
question  has  so  far  received  all  too  scanty  attention,  and  is  looked 
at  with  misgivings,  as  not  falling  in  the  arena  of  practical  reform, 
because  fraught  with  many  complications.  What  we  are  more 
concerned  with  is,  that  the  controversy  gave  new  life  to  literary 
activities,  and  encouraged  studious  habits  among  the  learned. 


CHAPTER  XXXVIII 

AN  EPOCH-MAKING  ERA  IN  THE  HISTORY  OF 
ZOROASTRIAN  RESEARCHES 

Introduction  of  Iranian  studies  in  the  West.  The  inexor- 
able decree  of  Providence  had  ruled  that  a  new  Hght  from  the 
West  should  dispel  the  darkness  that  had  shrouded  the  pages 
of  the  sacred  scriptures  for  ages,  and  add  to  their  better  under- 
standing and  elucidation.  European  travellers  who  had  visited 
India  and  Persia  during  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries 
acquainted  the  people  of  the  West  with  the  religious  beliefs,  man- 
ners, and  customs  of  the  followers  of  Zoroaster.  Hyde's  masterly 
work  on  the  Parsi  religion,  which  drew  its  materials  from  the 
works  of  classical  authors  and  the  Persian  version  of  the  Sad  Dar 
as  well  as  from  kindred  works,  appeared  in  1700.  Some  import- 
ant Iranian  manuscripts  had  been  carried  from.  India  to  England, 
and  were  now  shelved  as  curios  in  the  Bodleian  library  at  Oxford. 

Anquetil  du  Perron's  pioneer  work.  To  the  energetic 
Frenchman,  Anquetil  du  Perron,  is  due  the  credit  of  making  the 
first  systematic  attempt  to  study  the  Avestan  texts  and  place  their 
contents  before  the  Western  world.  Having  come  across  a 
facsimile  of  four  leaves  of  the  Bodleian  manuscript,  his  curiosity 
was  aroused,  and  with  characteristic  zeal  he  enlisted  as  a  soldier 
in  1754  on  a  ship  bound  for  India  with  the  aim  of  bringing  back 
to  the  Western  world  a  knowledge  of  the  sacred  scriptures  of 
Zoroaster.  Unbounded  enthusiasm,  combined  with  the  vigour  of 
youth,  enabled  Anquetil  to  overcome  the  almost  insuperable 
difficulties  that  stood  in  the  way  of  his  literary  enterprise.  Hav- 
ing acquired  from  Dastur  Darab,  the  high  priest  of  the  Parsis  of 
Surat,  what  inadequate  knowledge  he  could  get  in  those  days,  he 
returned  home  after  six  years  of  strenuous  work  and  published 
the  result  of  his  studies  in  three  quarto  volumes  in  1771.  This 
publication  created  a  stir  in  literary  circles,  and  gave  rise  to  a 
heated  controversy.  One  school  of  eminent  scholars  in  Europe 
declined  to  attach  any  weight  to  the  Frenchman's  work,  and 

321 


322  AN  EPOCH-MAKING  ERA 

denied  that  the  grotesque  stuflf  that  he  had  placed  before  the 
world  could  ever  be  the  work  of  so  great  a  thinker  and  sage  as 
Zoroaster,  stoutly  maintaining  that  Anquetil's  Avesta  was  either 
a  forgery  or  that  he  had  been  duped  by  the  Indian  Parsi  Mobads. 
The  falseness  of  this  view,  however,  was  ultimately  shown. 

Western  scholarship  revives  Zoroastrian  studies.  The  dis- 
interested labours  of  various  scholars  during  the  subsequent 
years  fully  substantiated  Anquetil's  pioneer  work;  and  when 
the  closer  affinity  between  the  language  of  the  Avesta  and  San- 
skrit became  generally  known,  the  sacred  texts  began  to  be  studied 
in  the  light  of  comparative  philology,  and  the  authenticity  of  the 
Avesta  was  completely  proved.  The  seeds  sown  by  Anquetil 
have  since  blossomed  into  fruitful  trees  in  Europe,  but  some 
decades  passed  after  the  publication  of  his  work  before  Western 
scholarship  penetrated  into  India. 


CHAPTER  XXXIX 

PROSELYTIZING  COMES  TO  BE  VIEWED  WITH 

DISFAVOUR 

Beginning  of  the  spirit  of  exclusiveness  among  the  Parsis. 
We  have  already  seen  that  the  handful  of  the  Parsi  fugitives 
who  emigrated  to  India  after  the  final  overthrow  o*^  the  Persian 
empire  in  the  middle  of  the  seventh  century  had  to  face  enormous 
difficulties  in  the  earlier  centuries  of  their  settlement  in  the  new 
home.  The  precarious  condition  in  which  they  lived  for  a  con- 
siderable period  made  it  impracticable  for  them  to  keep  up  their 
former  proselytizing  zeal.  The  instinctive  fear  of  disintegration 
and  absorption  in  the  vast  multitudes  among  whom  they  lived 
created  in  them  a  spirit  of  exclusiveness  and  a  strong  feeling 
for  the  preservation  of  the  racial  characteristics  and  distinctive 
features  of  their  community.  Living  in  an  atmosphere  sur- 
charged with  the  Hindu  caste  system,  they  felt  that  their  own 
safety  lay  in    encircling  their  fold  by  rigid  caste  barriers. 

The  community  was  divided  regarding  the  question  of 
admitting  lower  classes  of  aliens  into  its  fold.  Though  the 
practice  of  an  active  religious  propaganda  had  thus  fallen  into 
desuetude,  the  question  of  conversion  does  not  seem  to  have 
died  out  entirely,  for  we  find  recorded  in  the  Rivayat  literature 
that  a  heated  polemic  regarding  the  subject  was  carried  on  during 
the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century.  With  the  beginning 
of  economic  prosperity,  the  Indian  Parsis,  we  learn,  were  in 
the  habit  of  purchasing  male  and  female  slaves  of  low  Hindu 
castes.  These  slaves,  in  many  cases,  were  invested  with  the 
sacred  shirt  and  girdle  and  admitted  into  the  Zoroastrian  fold 
by  the  priests  at  the  request  of  their  masters.  Those  members 
of  the  community  who  were  opposed  to  the  mingling  of  their 
blood  with  that  of  such  a  low  class  of  people  denied  to  these  con- 
verts the  full  privileges  of  a  true  believer.  The  contesting 
parties  applied  to  their  coreligionists  in  Persia  for  their  advice 
and   decision   in  the  matter.     The   point   made   by   those   who 

323 


324  PROSELYTIZING  VIEWED  WITH  DISFAVOUR 

favoured  the  course  of  the  new  converts  was  that  the  Parsis  of 
India  who  owned  slaves  for  their  work  not  only  often  had  them 
admitted  to  the  Mazdayasnian  faith  in  accordance  with  the 
tenets  of  the  religion,  but  also,  without  any  religious  scruples, 
partook  of  food  prepared  by  them,  and  even  permitted  them,  at 
the  season  festival,  to  prepare  the  sacred  cakes  used  for  con- 
secration and  sacrificial  purposes.  It  was  urged  that  having 
allowed  the  converted  slaves  all  such  rights  of  a  true  Zoro- 
astrian  in  their  lifetime,  certain  priests  as  well  as  laymen  objected 
to  the  corpses  of  these  slaves  being  deposited  in  the  Towers  of 
Silence  when  they  died.  The  Iranian  high  priests,-  in  replying 
to  their  inquiring  brothers  in  India,  advised  them  in  the  beginning 
to  take  precautionary  measures  in  all  such  conversions  that  no 
harm  should  thereby  be  done  to  the  religion  and  to  the  com- 
munity. It  was  certainly  an  act  of  great  merit,  they  proceeded, 
to  purchase  alien  children  and  bring  them  up  as  Zoroastrians.  It 
was  unfair  and  highly  objectionable,  they  added,  nay  it  was  an 
inexpiable  sin,  to  refuse  these  unfortunate  people  all  the  privi- 
leges of  a  believer  after  once  admitting  them  into  the  Zoro- 
astrian  religious  fold.  It  is  taught  by  the  scriptures,  they  argued, 
that  all  mankind  will  be  brought  over  to  the  religion  of  Mazda  in 
the  time  of  the  future  saviour  prophets.  It  was,  therefore,  the 
pious  duty  of  every  true  Zoroastrian  to  help  this  great  cause  by 
leading  all  to  the  path  of  righteousness.  In  the  face  of  such 
commands,  they  concluded,  those  who  denied  to  the  proselytes 
the  full  rights  of  a  faithful  believer  did  not  deserve  to  be  called 
Zoroastrians.^ 

On  another  occasion,  in  reply  to  a  question  about  the  con- 
version of  such  low-class  people,  the  Iranian  informant  wrote 
that  even  a  man  who  dug  graves  or  followed  the  profession  of 
burning  the  dead  (two  inexpiable  sins  according  to  Zoroastrian- 
ism)  should  be  admitted  into  the  Zoroastrian  fold,  provided  his 
admittance  would  not  be  harmful  to  the  faith.^ 

The  fear  that  the  community  might  be  swamped  by  the 
undesirable  alien  element  was  a  reason  why  proselytizing  fell 
into  disfavour.  We  notice  in  that  discussion  that  the  different 
sections  of  the  community  were  divided  more  on  the  social  side  of 
the  question  of  proselytizing  than  on  its  religious  side.    The  protest 

*  Ithoter  Rivayat. 

'  Bombay  University  Library  Rivayat,  fol.  286a. 


PROSELYTIZING  VIEWED  WITH  DISFAVOUR  325 

was  chiefly  based  against  the  admixture  of  racial  blood  that  the 
low  class  of  the  aliens  introduced  into  the  community.  The 
Zoroastrians  of  Persia,  who  were  trampled  under  the  iron  foot  of 
their  Moslem  conquerors  and  had  lived  in  a  servile  state,  saw  no 
objection  whatsoever  in  receiving  converts  even  from  the  lowest 
strata  of  the  non-Zoroastrian  peoples.  But  the  case  was  different 
with  the  Indian  Parsis,  among  whom  the  improved  social  and 
economic  conditions  had  aroused  a  keen  sense  of  racial  pride  and 
consciousness  of  their  past  greatness.  A  considerable  portion  of 
the  community,  it  seems,  looked  with  disapproval  upon  the  intro- 
duction of  the  undesirable  element  of  alien  races  into  their  small 
numbers.  This  strong  feeling  was  aggravated  the  more  through 
the  fact  that  such  converts  who  sought  admission  came  always 
from  the  lowest  classes.  Members  of  the  upper  classes  of  the 
non-Zoroastrian  communities  were  not  heard  knocking  at  the 
door  of  the  Mazdayasnian  fire-temples  seeking  admission.  The 
community,  it  seems  to  us,  thought  it  impolitic  to  attempt  their 
conversion,  and  incur  the  displeasure  of  their  neighbouring  peo- 
ples. In  fact,  it  was  not  disposed  to  any  kind  of  active  religious 
propaganda.  The  cases  of  conversion  were  consequently  con- 
fined either  to  the  slaves  brought  up  in  Parsi  families  or  to  the 
children  born  to  Parsi  fathers  of  their  non-Zoroastrian  mistresses. 
Proselytizing  came  to  be  associated  with  the  low  type  of  foreign 
element,  and  fell  into  disrepute. 

A  beginning  of  opposition  to  the  idea  of  religious  propaganda 
was  thus  made  when  the  entire  question  of  proselytizing  came  to 
be  looked  upon  by  the  community  with  disfavour;  and  this  begin- 
ning, as  we  shall  see  later,  ultimately  ended  in  an  aversion  to 
the  idea  by  the  major  portion  of  the  community. 


CHAPTER  XL 

GUJARATI  LITERATURE  BEARING  UPON 
ZOROASTRIANISM 

The  last  native  version  of  the  Avesta  independent  of  the  in- 
fluence of  Western  scholarship.  So  far  the  Parsi  scholars  had 
generally  written  in  the  Persian  language,  a  knowledge  of  which 
was  limited  to  a  very  narrow  circle,  and  the  general  public  accord- 
ingly did  not  profit  by  their  work.  The  need  had  long  been  felt  of 
producing  theological  literature  in  the  language  of  the  people, 
and  several  portions  of  the  Persian  Rivayats  had  already  been 
done  into  Gujarati.  These  were  followed  during  the  early  part 
of  the  last  century  by  a  Gujarati  version  of  the  Avestan  texts, 
not  from  the  original,  but  based  on  the  Pahlavi,  Sanskrit,  and 
Persian  renderings.  This  was  the  last  native  attempt  to  render 
the  Avestan  scriptures  into  another  language  through  the  medium 
of  the  Pahlavi  translation.  The  Sanskrit,  Persian,  and  Gujarati 
translators  had  all  successively  made  their  renderings  on  the 
basis  of  the  traditional  Pahlavi  version ;  it  was  left  for  the  modern 
philologists  to  approach  the  Avestan  texts  in  the  original  itself, 
independently  of  the  Pahlavi  rendering  though  aided  by  it,  and 
through  the  methods  of  strict  linguistic  science  to  give  an  inde- 
pendent and  first-hand  translation  of  the  original  Avestan  texts. 

Rendering  of  other  Persian  works  into  Gujarati.  The 
Gujarati  version  of  the  Avesta  was  soon  followed  by  a  translation 
of  some  of  the  important  Pazand-Persian  works  into  Gujarati. 
The  most  popular  among  these  were  Jamaspi  and  Arda  Viraf 
Namah.  The  prognostications  of  the  former  treatise  fascinated 
the  gentler  sex,  who  were  regaled  by  the  recital  of  its  contents 
from  the  lips  of  the  family  priest  or  of  some  male  member  of  the 
family  who  happened  to  know  the  language.  Viraf's  account  of 
the  beatific  visions  of  heaven  and  the  horrors  of  hell  appeared 
in  illustrated  lithographed  editions.  The  pictures  of  the  heavenly 
persons  seated  on  golden  thrones,  and  of  the  wicked  falling  head- 
long into  hell  to  be  gnawed  by  noxious  creatures,  served  vividly 

326 


GUJARATI  LITERATURE  UPON  ZOROASTRIANISM       327 

to  bring  the  abstract  ethical  teachings  before  the  mind  of  young 
and  old.  In  the  same  connection,  it  may  be  added  that  the 
episodes  of  the  Persian  kings  and  warriors,  handed  down  from 
antiquity  by  tradition,  were  rendered  into  Gujarati,  and  were 
most  enthusiastically  read  or  heard  by  all.  This  helped  also  to 
bring  home  to  them  the  greatness  and  glory  of  their  ancestors. 


A    PERIOD    OF    REVIVAL 
NINETEENTH    CENTURY   AND   AFTER 


CHAPTER  XLI 
THE  REVIVAL  OF  LEARNING  AMONG  THE  PARSIS 

Awakening  of  the  communal  conscience.  The  advent  of  the 
British  in  India,  and  an  era  of  peace,  justice,  and  security  of 
hfe  and  property,  ushered  in  by  them,  opened  a  new  page  in 
the  history  of  the  Parsis.  Having  a  ready  scope,  the  means  of 
adaptation,  and  also  elasticity  in  their  religion,  they  now  began 
to  assert  their  latent  capacity,  and  soon  emerged  from  the 
obscurity  in  which  they  had  lived,  to  become  henceforth  the  fore- 
most people  in  India  in  matters  educational,  industrial,  and  social. 
They  came  in  the  vanguard  of  progress,  amassed  vast  fortunes, 
and  munificently  gave  away  large  sums  in  charity.  This  un- 
precedented economic  prosperity  helped  the  revival  of  learning 
among  the  Zoroastrians.  The  new  epoch  of  the  revival  of  learn- 
ing gave  new  hopes  for  a  period  of  formation  and  life.  Various 
educational  institutions  had  been  founded,  and  the  Parsis  faced 
the  problem  of  the  responsibility  of  universal  franchise  in  the 
world  of  letters.  The  average  Parsi  child  of  both  the  sexes  en- 
tered the  schools  founded  on  European  lines,  and  education  on 
Western  standards  spread  with  accelerated  rapidity. 

The  nevs^  knowledge  profoundly  modified  the  religious  con- 
ceptions of  the  young.  The  inroads  of  Western  ideas  and  cul- 
ture undermined  the  old  ideals,  and  modified  many  of  the  beliefs 
sanctified  by  ages.  It  was  the  opening  of  a  new  age  for  the 
Parsis,  in  which  they  witnessed  the  waning  of  the  power  of 
authority  and  the  waxing  of  the  demand  for  the  verification  of 
religious  truths.  The  transition  from  the  old  to  the  new  was 
bound  to  be  disruptive.  The  new  spirit  that  had  taken  hold  of 
the  community  stirred  it  to  its  lowest  depth.  It  threatened  the 
community  with  an  intellectual  revolt  from  the  new  school.  The 
reaction  was  bound  to  come,  and  come  it  did.  It  was  violent, 
as  all  reaction  is  apt  to  be,  and  it  ended  in  indifferentism.  The 
popular  creed  failed  to  carry  conviction  to  their  intellect.  They 
wanted  to  verify  their  doubts  and  refused  to  believe  that  which, 

331 


332      THE  REVIVAL  OF  LEARNING  AMONG  THE  PARSIS 

as  they  said,  was  revolting  to  reason.  The  glowing  accounts  of 
the  reward  and  retribution  of  the  materialized  heaven  and  hell 
ceased  to  act  upon  the  imagination  of  the  educated  classes. 
The  imaginings  of  Viraf  failed  to  exert  any  restraining  influence 
over  the  tendency  to  sin.  The  inspired  visions  of  this  seer, 
about  the  scenes  of  the  hereafter,  depicting  the  pleasures  of  the 
souls  of  the  blessed  in  paradise  and  the  agonies  of  the  wicked 
in  hell,  which  satisfied  the  spiritual  cravings  of  their  elders  for 
ages,  failed  longer  so  to  do  in  the  case  of  the  new-  generation. 
The  waters  of  Ardvisur  had  inundated  the  regions  of  hell  and 
quenched  the  blazing  fire,  the  horrors  of  hell  had  vanished  into 
thin  air,  and  the  apocalyptic  account  of  Viraf  no  longer  pre- 
sented to  the  minds  of  the  enlightened  youth  what  they  had  to  the 
strictly  orthodox.  A  treatment  of  the  unfortunate  souls,  such  as 
was  portrayed  traditionally,  seemed  to  them  monstrous,  and 
subverting  man's  idea  of  the  goodness  of  Ormazd.  They 
thought  them  to  be  crude  and  archaic.  The  germs  of  new 
thought  were  sprouting  among  the  young,  and  they  viewed  these 
theological  problems  with  a  changed  attitude.  They  gradually 
became  estranged  from  all  beliefs  that  had  been  instilled  into 
them  from  childhood. 

An  illiterate  priesthood  failed  to  satisfy  the  intellectual 
wants  of  the  enlightened  youth.  The  Parsi  priesthood  had  long 
before  degenerated  into  ignorance.  The  situation  was  not  keenly 
felt  so  long  as  the  laity  was  equally  illiterate.  But  now  when  the 
latter  sought  enlightenment,  the  clergy  had  kept  less  and  less 
abreast  of  the  times.  During  the  long  period  of  twelve  centuries, 
hardly  twelve  priests  rose  above  mediocrity.  The  priest  hitherto 
had  acted  as  an  intercessor  between  the  layman  and  Ormazd, 
and  through  elaborate  ritual  had  undertaken  to  gain  for  him 
divine  help,  being  duly  paid  to  recite  penitential  prayers  for 
the  expiation  of  the  sins  of  the  living,  and  to  sacrifice  for  the 
purchase  of  paradise  for  the  dead.  The  youth  of  the  new 
school  argued  that  there  was  no  more  need  of  the  Mobad's  media- 
tion between  him  and  his  Heavenly  Father.  He  demanded  that 
the  priest  should  act  as  a  moral  preceptor,  a  spiritual  ministrant  to 
his  soul.  This,  in  those  times,  the  priest  could  not  do.  He  could 
not  widen  his  religious  outlook  and  adapt  himself  to  the  demand 
of  the  younger  generation. 

The  youth  now  grew  up  without  religious  instruction,  and  grad- 


THE  REVIVAL  OF  LEARNING  AMONG  THE  PARSIS       333 

ually  gravitated  towards  indifferentism.  The  apathy,  callousness, 
and  disregard  towards  religion  on  the  part  of  the  educated  youth 
waxed  stronger  day  by  day,  and  culminated  in  an  atmosphere 
of  agnosticism  that  withered  the  beliefs  in  which  they  were 
brought  up.    Agnosticism  became  the  threatening  evil  of  the  day. 


CHAPTER  XLII 

INTRODUCTION  OF  THE  WESTERN  METHOD  OF 
IRANIAN  SCHOLARSHIP  IN  INDIA 

Parsi  scholarship  at  this  period.  To  K.  R.  Kama,  Parsi 
pioneer  of  the  Iranian  studies  on  Western  lines  in  India,  who 
had  studied  the  Avestan  texts  in  Europe  under  the  German 
savant  Spiegel,  is  due  the  credit  of  introducing  among  Parsi 
scholars  the  science  of  comparative  philology  and  the  scientific 
method  of  interpreting  their  sacred  books.  The  inauguration  of 
this  new  era  belongs  to  the  early  part  of  the  second  half  of  the 
last  century.  Up  to  that  time  the  Avestan  texts  had  been  almost 
wholly  interpreted  by  the  Zoroastrian  authorities  through  the 
help  of  their  Pahlavi  translations.  The  original  Avestan  texts 
had  remained  largely  unintelligible  without  the  Pahlavi  version. 
It  was  not  then  known  that  the  Gathas  were  composed  in  metre, 
much  less  the  fact  that  some  other  minor  texts  were  also  metrical. 
The  rudiments  of  Avestan  grammar  that  various  inflections  modi- 
fied the  meaning  of  a  word  had  been  a  long  forgotten  fact. 
This  was  due  to  the  circumstance  that,  owing  to  the  inflectional 
poverty  of  the  Pahlavi  language,  the  translators  had  resorted  to 
the  use  of  particles  and  very  often  had  even  dropped  this  only 
means  of  indicating  the  syntactical  relation  of  words  in  a  sentence, 
and  had  contented  themselves  with  rendering  an  inflected  Avestan 
word  by  its  uninflected,  crude  Pahlavi  equivalent.  Such,  in  short, 
was  the  deplorable  state  of  Parsi  scholarship  when  comparative 
philology  came  to  its  aid  from  the  West  and  opened  a  new  era 
of  critical  study  in  the  field  of  Iranian  researches. 

Historical  studies  fared  little  better.  Firdausi  and  other 
Moslem  writers  were  the  sole  informants  of  the  Parsi  scholars 
regarding  the  ancient  and  legendary  history  of  Iran.  As  these 
did  not  record  the  doings  of  the  Achaemenian  kings,  the  Parsi 
community  remained  without  any  inkling  of  the  greatness  and 
glory  of  the  illustrious  Parsi  kings  of  the  great  Persian  empire. 
European  history  had  now  for  the  first  time  startled  the  EngHsh- 

334 


WESTERN  SCHOLARSHIP  IN  INDIA  335 

educated  Parsi  youth  with  the  information  that  there  once 
flourished  a  mighty  dynasty  of  rulers  whom  the  modern  Parsi 
can  claim  as  his  kith  and  kin.  The  truth  had  been  denied  for 
centuries  to  their  legitimate  descendants  in  India  and  Persia  that 
a  Cyrus  or  a  Darius,  a  Xerxes  or  an  Artaxerxes,  who  had  carried 
the  Persian  banner  in  war  to  the  farthest  ends  of  the  world,  were 
historically  their  own  coreligionists. 

It  was  equally  to  Western  scholarship  that  the  Parsis  owed 
the  discovery  and  decipherment  of  the  Old  Persian  Cuneiform 
Inscriptions.  In  vain  did  the  august  Farohar  of  Darius  hover 
round  the  rock  of  Behistan  for  over  two  thousand  years  in 
pious  expectation  of  some  Parsi  traveller  who  would  one  day 
trace  his  steps  to  this  hallowed  place,  climb  the  rock  to  read  the 
great  king's  record,  make  it  known  to  the  world,  and  thus  earn 
the  royal  monarch's  blessings  whispered  in  the  solemn  silence  by 
as  many  tongues  as  there  were  wedges  and  angles  in  the  letters 
of  the  carved  inscriptions. 

Textual  criticism  brings  startling  revelations  for  the 
Parsis.  The  first  outcome  of  the  critical  study  of  the  Avestan 
literature,  as  may  be  judged  from  intimations  given  above,  was 
the  discovery  made  by  the  Western  scholars  that  the  grammar, 
style,  and  internal  evidence  of  the  extant  Avestan  texts  show 
that  they  were  not  composed  at  a  single  period  and  by  one  person, 
but  that  they  were  the  products  of  many  persons  who  worked  at 
various  times.  Scholars  such  as  these  undertook  to  determine  the 
approximate  dates  of  the  component  parts  of  the  Avesta.  The 
Gathas  were  shown  to  be  the  oldest  in  time  of  composition,  and 
the  authorship  of  a  considerable  portion,  if  not  all,  of  these 
hymns  was  ascribed  to  Zoroaster  himself.  The  prophet's  work, 
it  was  said,  was  continued  by  his  immediate  disciples,  and  must 
have  extended  over  a  very  long  period  after  him,  even  though  the 
immediate  impression  made  by  Zoroaster  himself  may  be  acknowl- 
edged to  have  become  fainter  in  succeeding  generations.  The  re- 
ligion of  the  Younger  Avesta  had  departed  in  certain  respects  from 
the  religion  of  the  Gathas,  and  the  subsequent  compositions  showed 
signs  of  degeneration  both  in  substance  and  style.  The  simple 
and  abstract  spirit  of  the  Gathas  was  blurred  if  not  lost,  and 
the  development  of  the  later  texts  tended  to  become  more  com- 
plex and  concrete.  We  breathe  a  different  atmosphere,  they 
declared,  when  we  pass  from  the  Gathic  to  the  later  Avestan 


336  WESTERN  SCHOLARSHIP  IN  INDIA 

field.  Nature-worship,  which  Zoroaster  strove  to  supplant  by  a 
higher  type  of  ethical  religion,  was  shown  to  have  been  rein- 
stated in  these  later  texts.  The  Haoma  cult,  against  which 
Zoroaster  had  inveighed,  had  been  again  incorporated  into  Zoro- 
astrian  ritual  to  conciliate  the  prejudices  of  the  Magi.  The 
masses  could  not  be  weaned  from  the  false  beliefs  that  loomed 
large  in  their  eyes,  and  thus,  the  scholars  maintained,  many 
practices  abolished  by  Zoroaster  were  later  resuscitated  by  the 
clergy. 

Startling  indeed  were  these  new  ideas  that  philological  re- 
searches brought  to  the  Parsis,  who  had  been  accustomed  to 
attribute  indiscriminately  all  Avestan  compositions  to  Zoroaster 
himself  and  who  never  approached  their  own  sacred  books  with 
a  historical  perspective. 

Back  to  the  Gathas  w^as  the  war-cry  of  the  new  school. 
This  critical  estimate  of  their  scriptures  by  the  Iranian  scholars 
of  the  West  greatly  influenced  the  young  Parsi  scholars  in  India. 
They  now  hailed  the  Gathas  as  providing  a  self-sufficient  religious 
system  in  themselves.  They  claimed  to  have  discovered  the  only 
true  mirror  in  which  the  genuine  teachings  of  Zoroaster  were 
reflected.  The  Later  Avestan  texts  were  declared  to  render 
nugatory  the  pristine  purity.  An  exuberant  outgrowth  of  dog- 
matic theology  and  ceremonial  observances,  they  asserted,  had 
supplanted  the  buoyant  simplicity  of  the  Gathic  teachings,  and 
simply  represented  a  decline  from  the  pure  teachings  of  Zoro- 
aster. The  names  of  the  Amshaspands  in  the  Gathas  were  con- 
sidered to  be  merely  descriptive  of  the  attributes  of  Ormazd. 
These  attributes,  they  insisted,  had  crystallized  into  concrete 
beings,  thus  converting  the  monotheistic  religion  of  Zoroaster 
into  a  veritable  system  of  polytheism.  Tradition,  they  urged, 
attributed  to  Zoroaster  doctrines  that  he  never  preached.  They 
advocated  a  return  to  the  original  purity  of  the  faith  by  stripping 
off  the  accretions  that  had  gathered  round  the  pure  canon  of  the 
prophet,  thus  removing  the  haze  of  ignorance  and  bigotry  that 
had  overclouded  the  light  of  their  excellent  religion. 

All  this  was  highly  sacrilegious  to  orthodox  ears.  Such 
statements  roused  the  strong  resentment  of  the  community  and 
elicited  vehement  protests  from  priests  and  laymen  alike.  The 
new  school  was  assailed  on  all  sides.  More  sober  opinion  inter- 
vened to  modify  the  sweeping  assertions,  and  declared  that  while 


WESTERN  SCHOLARSHIP  IN  INDIA  337 

the  Gathas,  of  course,  should  be  taken  as  the  norm,  there  should 
also  be  admitted  into  the  Zoroastrian  canon  such  parts  of  the 
later  scriptures  as  were  in  accord  with  the  Gathic  spirit;  but 
whatever  could  not  be  traced  to  the  Gathas  was  adventitious,  and 
therefore  not  deserving  of  acceptance.  The  problem  at  once  arose 
as  to  who  was  going  to  distinguish  the  authoritative  from  the 
unauthoritative  and  a  new  controversy  opened  amid  still  more 
bitter  feelings. 

A  new  theory  to  defend  the  Gathas  from  the  accusation  of 
dualism.  The  salient  feature  of  dualism  in  the  Iranian  faith  has 
ever  been  the  chief  point  assailed  by  the  non-Zoroastrians,  both 
in  ancient  and  modern  times,  whenever  they  have  entered  into 
religious  disputations  with  the  followers  of  the  prophet.  They 
have  laid  the  doctrine  of  two  gods  to  the  charge  of  Zoroastrian- 
ism.  The  accidentals  of  the  controversy  have  varied  materially 
in  their  character  at  different  periods,  but  the  main  point  of 
contention  has  ever  remained  the  same.  We  have  already  seen 
how  vehemently  the  learned  prelates  of  the  Pahlavi  period  strove 
to  vindicate  this  characteristic  feature  of  the  Zoroastrian  teach- 
ings. Far  from  considering  it  a  weak  point,  they  hailed  it  as 
the  only  possible  solution  of  the  problem  of  evil.  Not  so  their 
modern  descendants.  The  repeated  attacks  of  the  Christian 
missionaries,  and  the  strong  influence  of  the  Western  literature, 
which  hailed  monotheism  as  the  highest  category  of  theology, 
brought  about  an  unprecedented  change  in  this  belief;  and  so 
powerful  has  this  influence  been,  that  we  hardly  ever  find  even 
at  this  day  any  learned  Parsi  priest  or  layman  marshalling  argu- 
ments in  vindication  of  the  doctrine.  Attempts  are  now  generally 
made  either  to  explain  it  away  by  ingenious  arguments  or  to 
speak  of  it  apologetically. 

Haug  was  the  first  to  bring  it  to  the  notice  of  the  Parsis 
that  the  leading  idea  of  the  Gathas  was  monotheism.  Ahura 
Mazda,  he  declared,  is  the  supreme  godhead,  who  has  produced 
the  two  rival  principles  Spenta  Mainyu  and  Angra  Mainyu  as  his 
twin  spirits.  Separated  as  they  seem,  they  are  united  in  action. 
They  are  indispensable  to  each  other  in  the  formation  and  con- 
duct of  the  universe.  They  are  the  creative  and  destroying,  con- 
structive and  destructive  powers  of  God,  and  are  as  inseparable 
from  each  other  as  day  and  night.  The  opposition  rests  with  the 
two  rival  spirits,  and  nowhere  in  the  Gathas  does  Angra  Mainyu, 


338  WESTERN  SCHOLARSHIP  IN  INDIA 

the  Evil  Spirit,  stand  in  direct  opposition  to  Ahura  Mazda.  This 
fundamental  distinction,  he  said,  is  lost  sight  of  in  the  later 
period,  and  we  find  in  the  Vendidad  that  the  Good  Spirit  Spenta 
Mainyu  is  identified  with  Ahura  Mazda  himself,  and  the  Evil 
Spirit  Angra  Alainyu  stands  in  direct  antagonism  to  God.  The 
Parsi  scholars  who  were  ever  in  search  for  some  new  arguments 
to  remove  the  so-called  weak  point  of  their  faith  eagerly  em- 
braced this  new  explanation,  which,  they  thought,  saved  the 
Gathas  at  least  from  the  stain  of  dualism.  If  the  Vendidad  and 
other  later  works  introduced  it  in  the  Zoroastrian  theology,  it  was 
a  decided  fall,  they  claimed,  from  the  original  pure  monotheism. 
The  prophet  himself  never  taught  dualism,  they  argued,  and  it  is 
unfair  to  ascribe  that  doctrine  to  him,  for  which  the  enlightened 
youth  had  to  blush  before  modern  criticism ! 

But  more.  It  was  even  suggested  by  some  of  the  interpreters 
that  Angra  Mainyu  is  not  an  evil  spirit  at  all,  because  according 
to  an  explanation  which  they  suggested  he,  in  company  with 
Spenta  Mainyu,  is  called  the  protector,  and  Sraosha  himself 
sacrificed  unto  him.^  We  should  not  have  been  surprised  to-day 
if  the  doctors  of  the  Zoroastrian  church  of  earlier  generations 
had  branded  such  a  statement  as  Ahrimanian,  and  classed  it 
among  the  sins  that  are  inexpiable  for  ever  and  ever. 

'  Ys.  57.  2. 


CHAPTER  XLIII 

CHRISTIAN  MISSIONARIES  ATTACK 
ZOROASTRIANISM 

Indifferentism  on  the  part  of  the  Par  si  youth  arouses  the 
proselytizing  zeal  of  the  Christian  missionaries.  These  thought 
that  they  could  easily  turn  the  apathy  of  the  newly  educated 
Parsi  youth  for  his  own  religion  to  interest  in  the  faith  of 
Jesus,  if  they  could  convince  him  of  the  superiority  of  Chris- 
tianity over  his  national  creed.  The  impressionable  youth  once 
secured,  they  imagined,  would  prove  a  valuable  asset  in  bringing 
over  his  enlightened  coreligionists  to  the  Christian  fold.  Chris- 
tianity would  thus  easily  spread  downwards  among  the  masses, 
they  thought,  if  only  they  could  capture  the  upper  educated 
classes.  The  missionaries  felt  that  this  handful  of  the  pro- 
gressive people,  who  approached  nearest  to  the  Western  people 
in  their  modes  of  living,  would  ultimately  be  easily  won  over  to 
their  faith.  With  this  object  in  view  some  of  them  began  to 
study  the  Zoroastrian  scriptures  at  first  hand.  They  picked  out 
what  seemed  to  them  to  be  vulnerable  points  in  the  Zoroastrian 
faith,  and  exposed  them  to  the  ridicule  of  the  Parsi  youth  newly 
tinged  with  Western  ideas.  The  community  was  alarmed  at  this 
aggression,  the  more  so  when  a  couple  of  converts  were  actually 
made  to  Christianity  from  this  class. 

Salient  features  of  Zoroastrianism  assailed  by  the  mis- 
sionaries. The  religion  of  Zoroaster,  the  controversialists 
alleged,  abounded  in  absurdities  and  incongruities.  It  was  based 
on  the  idolatry  of  nature.  The  Parsi  scholars  repudiated  the 
accusation  with  indignation,  and  said  that  in  their  reverence 
for  the  elements  of  nature  they  never  worshipped  fire,  sun,  and 
such  other  elements,  but  venerated  the  angels  presiding  over 
these  noble  productions  of  God,  holding  them  to  be  his  purest 
symbols.^ 

^  A  Parsi  Priest,  Talim-i  Zurtoosht,  p.  15,  Bombay,  1840;  Aspandiarji, 
Hadie  Gum  Rahan   (Eng.  version),  p.  44,  Bombay,   1841. 

339 


340       CHRISTIAN  MISSIONARIES  ATTACK  ZOROASTRIANISM 

An  erroneous  rendering  of  Vd.  19.  9  had  led  Anquetil  du 
Perron,  the  first  translator  of  the  Avestan  texts  into  a  European 
tongue,  to  depict  Boundless  Time  as  the  first  principle  of  the 
universe.-  This  interpretation  was  taken  as  an  unequivocal  testi- 
mony of  the  Zoroastrian  scriptures  to  corroborate  the  statement 
of  the  Greek  and  Armenian  writers  who  had  alleged  that  both 
Ormazd  and  Ahriman  had  sprung  from  Time.  Anquetil's  mis- 
take was  repeated  in  the  works  of  the  European  writers  for  a 
considerable  time,  until  it  was  finally  corrected  by  the  unanimous 
verdict  of  the  Iranian  scholars  of  the  West  during  the  latter 
half  of  the  last  century.  When  the  Zoroastrian  scriptures  were 
adversely  criticized  by  the  missionaries  on  the  ground  that  the 
doctrine  of  Boundless  Time  at  the  apex  of  existence  proved  the 
derivative  and  secondar)^  character  of  Ormazd,^  the  Parsi  priests 
repudiated  the  charge  and  vigorously  maintained  that  the  con- 
cept simply  designated  eternity  and  nothing  more.  Far  from 
being  Ormazd's  superior,  Boundless  Time,  they  affirmed,  was  his 
creation. 

More  heated  was  the  controversy  that  hinged  upon  the  alleged 
belief  of  two  rival  spirits.  We  have  already  seen  how  dualism 
has  been  the  main  question  of  inveterate  controversies ;  we  shall 
here  only  advert  to  it  in  passing.  When  the  missionaries  deri- 
sively called  the  Parsis  the  worshippers  of  two  gods,  which  cer- 
tainly they  never  were,  they  at  once  vehemently  denied  the 
charge  and  hastened  to  repudiate  it  by  denying  downright  an 
objective  existence  to  Ahriman.  The  Evil  Spirit,  they  argued,  is 
not  an  entity,  but  merely  the  symbolic  personification  of  evil 
nature  in  man  owing  his  origin  to  man's  errant  thoughts.  Out- 
side of  man  he  has  no  existence  at  all.  He  is  a  gratuitous  inven- 
tion. The  concept  of  his  existence  is  purely  negative,  a  chimera. 
He  is  man's  creation,  as  are  also  the  infernal  host  of  demons 
and  fiends,  which  are  nothing  more  than  the  lusts  and  passions 
of  man.* 

Parsi  apologists  meet  the  charges  of  their  opponents  by 
resorting  to  allegorical  explanations.  This  attempt  at  giving 
allegorical  interpretations  of  the  scriptures  was  carried  still 
further.     Tradition  had  always  seen  some  geographical  data  in 

^Zend-Avesta,  vol.  i,  p.  414;  vol.  2,  p.  592,  Paris,  1771. 
^  Wilson,  The  Parsi  Religion,  p.  134,  Bombay,  1843. 
*A    Parsi    Priest,    Talim-i-Zurtoosht,   pp.  62-64,   83,   84;   Aspandiarji, 
Hadie  Gum  Rahan   (Eng.  version),  pp.  35-37,  7Z>  74- 


CHRISTIAN  MISSIONARIES  ATTACK  ZOROASTRIANISM       341 

the  first  chapter  of  the  Vendidad,  and  modern  scholarship  had 
accepted  that  view ;  but  in  their  polemics  with  the  missionaries 
the  Parsi  scholars  explained  the  opening  of  the  chapter  by  assert- 
ing that  the  act  of  Ormazd  in  creating  Iran  Vej,  the  first  region 
of  the  world,  was  to  be  interpreted  as  a  mere  figurative  expres- 
sion for  religious  faith,  and  Ahriman's  countercreation  of  winter 
was  emblematic  of  infidelity.  Similarly,  the  various  places  said 
to  have  been  created  by  Ormazd  indicated  man's  body,  and  the 
obnoxious  creatures  of  Ahriman  signified  man's  evil  passions.^ 
Another  instance  of  the  same  kind  of  interpretation  may  be 
cited.  Druj  Nasu,  or  the  Demon  of  Defilement,  is  spoken  of  in 
the  Vendidad  as  taking  possession  of  a  man  who  has  touched  the 
corpse  of  a  dog  or  a  man,®  and  a  minute  description  is  given  as 
to  how  the  demon  is  successively  driven  out  from  the  top  of  the 
head  of  the  defiled  person  to  the  tips  of  his  toes,  as  the  ablution 
ceremony  is  being  performed.  This  rite  was  criticized  as  being 
revolting  to  common  sense.'^  Instead  of  defending  it  on  hygienic 
principles,  the  learned  controversialists  again  expatiated  upon  the 
mystic  significance  of  the  text,  and  alleged  that  the  whole  cere- 
mony referred  to  the  internal  purification  of  man,  and  that  Nasu 
represented  his  evil  nature,  while  the  successive  expulsion  of 
the  fiend  from  one  part  of  the  body  to  another,  until  finally 
eradicated,  meant  the  gradual  improvement  of  man's  character.^ 
Zoroastrianism  teaches  that  the  sin  of  burying  corpses  is  in- 
expiable.^ The  pulling  down  of  the  dakhmas,  wherein  lie  interred 
the  dead  bodies  of  such  men,  is  a  means  of  the  expiation  of 
one's  sins  in  thought,  word,  and  deed;  and  is  equivalent  to  the 
recital  of  a  Patit.^°  Responding  to  a  criticism  on  this  passage, 
recourse  was  again  taken  to  declare  it  as  couched  in  mysterious 
language.  It  was  curiously  explained  to  mean  that  the  dakhma 
referred  to  the  body  of  man,  the  corpse  stood  for  his  evil  pas- 
sions, its  disinterment  meant  the  expulsion  of  the  evil  propensities, 
and  the  final  exposure  to  the  light  of  the  sun  signified  the  enlight- 
enment of  the  inner  man  by  the  divine  wisdom.^^ 

"  A  Parsi  Priest,  Talim-i  Zurtoosht,  pp.  35,  36. 

*Vd.  8.  35-71. 

^  Wilson,  The  Parsi  Religion,  p.  161. 

*  Aspandiarji,   Hadie   Gum   Rohan    (Eng.   Version),   p.    74;   A    Parsi 
Priest,   Talini-i-Zurtoosht,  p.   180. 

"Vd.  I.  12;  3.  38,  39- 
^°Vd.  7.  51;  13-  57. 
^^  Aspandiarji,   Hadie  Gum  Rahan,  pp.   79,  80. 


342       CHRISTIAN  MISSIONARIES  ATTACK  ZOROASTRIANISM 

The  outcome  of  this  controversy.  The  Parsis  further  re- 
tahated  by  seizing  upon  the  weak  points  of  the  Christian  scrip- 
tures and  turning  them  into  ridicule.  Theological  questions 
were  thus  discussed  with  acrimonious  zeal  on  both  sides,  and  a 
considerable  polemic  literature  was  produced.  The  good  that 
came  out  of  this  controversy  was  that  the  study  of  their  own 
religion  began  to  be  prosecuted  by  the  Parsi  priests  with  greater 
avidity  than  before. 


CHAPTER  XLIV 

THE  REFORM  MOVEMENT 

Crusade  against  the  non-Zoroastrian  practices  engrafted 
upon  Zoroastrianism.  The  compromises  and  concessions  made 
on  the  part  of  the  early  Parsi  settlers  in  India  were  needed  to 
conciliate  the  prejudices  of  the  Hindu  rulers.  The  Parsis  were 
a  handful  of  people  living  in  the  midst  of  the  teeming  millions 
of  India,  and  even  the  twelve  centuries  of  their  residence  in 
this  country  have  failed  to  merge  them  in  the  ocean  of  Indian 
humanity.  This  fact  is  largely  due  to  their  intensely  communal 
spirit,  fostered  by  the  dread  of  being  assimilated  into  greater 
communities,  and  of  thus  losing  their  individuality.  Zoroastrian- 
ism stands  for  self-assertion.  Despite  their  insignificant  num- 
bers, the  inherent  and  dominant  characteristics  of  the  Parsis 
made  them  self-sufficient  in  the  midst  of  the  Hindus  of  Gujarat, 
whose  religious  ideals  were  self-surrender  and  self-renunciation. 
But  the  average  Parsi  did  not  fail  to  borrow  many  superstitious 
customs  and  habits  from  the  Hindus  as  well  as  from  the 
Muhammadans  during  the  later  period.  The  Hindu  augur  and 
the  Moslem  diviner  became  important  factors  in  the  family  life 
of  the  Parsis.  These  seers  were  called  in  to  cast  the  horoscope 
of  the  new-born  Zoroastrian  child;  they  foretold  the  future,  ad- 
ministered amulets  to  heal  every  sickness  and  disease  in  the 
family,  prescribed  charms  to  ward  off  the  evil  eye,  exorcised 
demoniacal  influences  from  persons  possessed  by  the  powers  of 
darkness,  and,  in  many  ways,  proved  indispensable  auxiliaries 
to  a  Parsi  from  birth  to  death.  The  mediation  of  a  Brahman  or 
of  a  Mullah  was  often  rated  higher  than  that  of  a  Mobad,  and 
a  Sanskrit  mantra  or  an  Arabic  kalma  was  regarded  more 
efficacious  for  the  purchase  of  heavenly  boons  than  an  Avestan 
manthra.  The  Zoroastrian  priest  ruled  in  the  fire-temple,  but 
the  non-Zoroastrian  priest  had  a  powerful  sway  over  the  hearts 
of  the  Parsi  populace.  With  rich  offerings  did  the  faithful  repair 
to  the   tombs  of   Moslem   saints   and   to   Hindu   shrines.     The 

343 


344  THE  REFORM  MOVEMENT 

grandeur  of  the  Mazdayasnian  teachings  had  faded,  and  Zoro- 
aster had  partly  ceased  to  be  a  living  force  in  the  spiritual 
life  of  the  community. 

Many  alien  customs  had  thus  worked  their  way  into  Zoro- 
astrianism.  These  were  hard  facts  for  the  orthodox  to  admit, 
but  they  were  facts  all  the  same.  With  the  vigour  of  youth  and 
with  unquenchable  zeal  the  reformers  of  that  day  undertook  to 
liberate  the  community  from  the  thraldom  of  superimposed  non- 
Zoroastrian   customs,  and   to   wean  it   from   superstitions. 

The  reformers  protested  against  reciting  their  prayers 
parrot-wise  in  an  unintelligible  language.  The  Avesta  language 
had  long  since  fallen  into  disuse.  It  was  not  a  living  language. 
Yet  the  belief  in  its  being  of  celestial  origin,  the  tongue  in 
which  Ormazd  addressed  his  heavenly  court,  and  even  that  in 
which  Ahriman  harangued  his  ribald  crew,  had  preserved  it  as 
the  only  true  vehicle  for  conveying  prayers.  The  reformers  now 
argued  that  it  was  meaningless  to  mumble  an  unintelligible  gib- 
berish which  neither  the  priest  himself  nor  the  layman  under- 
stood. Ejaculations  and  genuflexions  were  of  no  avail,  when  they 
recited  their  prayers  in  a  dead  language.  No  amount  of  such 
formulas  would  affect  the  character  of  the  devotees  and  ennoble 
their  thoughts.  A  prayer  that  had  no  subjective  value  was  no 
prayer.  It  failed  to  awaken  any  ethical  fervour,  for  a  truly 
devout  prayer  should  spur  the  spirit  within  to  a  higher  life.  This 
was  not  possible  so  long  as  the  priest  perfunctorily  droned 
prayers,  not  a  word  of  which  was  understood. 

The  orthodox  vehemently  retorted  that  the  Avestan  language 
was  divine,  and  as  such  it  possessed  inherent  magical  efficacy. 
Miraculously  composed  as  these  Avestan  prayers  were,  they 
had  indescribable  objective  value,  it  was  claimed,  quite  inde- 
pendent of  the  motive  of  one  who  recited  them.  The  mere 
utterance  of  the  sacred  texts,  without  knowing  in  the  least  what 
they  meant,  would  produce  marvellous  effect.  The  ultra- 
orthodox  viewed  the  situation  with  pious  dread  and  entertained 
serious  apprehension  that,  if  once  the  community  permitted  the 
use  of  Gujarati  or  English  compositions  for  daily  prayers,  noth- 
ing short  of  a  revolutionary  change  would  come,  and  with  the 
lapse  of  time  the  Avestan  texts  would  be  supplanted  by  prayer- 
books  composed  in  the  modern  vernaculars.  The  reformers 
pointed  out  that   there  already  existed   some   mondjdt  prayers 


THE  REFORM  MOVEMENT  345 

composed  in  Persian  by  some  of  the  learned  Dasturs  even  in  their 
own  Hfetime,  which  the  orthodox  were  using  without  any  scruple 
at  the  end  of  their  daily  Avestan  prayers. 

A  fierce  controversy  raged  around  this  question,  with  the 
result  that  the  orthodox  went  on  praying  in  their  own  way,  and 
the  reformers,  neither  having  faith  in  the  recital  of  their  prayers 
in  an  unintelligible  language  nor  having  a  proper  substitute  to 
satisfy  their  demand,  went  without  prayers  of  any  kind.  And  the 
situation  remains,  in  large  measure,  unchanged  up  to  this  very 

day. 

The  Avestan  text  metamorphosed  into  an  ungrammatical 
jargon.  The  reformers  further  said  that  the  Avestan  texts  were 
recited  with  the  most  incorrect  pronunciations.  In  vindication 
of  their  statement  they  quoted  passages  from  the  original  texts 
and  put  by  their  side  the  corrupt  formulas  in  vogue  in  the 
community.  An  example  of  this  kind  may  not  be  out  of  place 
here,  and  we  shall  insert  the  text  of  Ahunavar,  the  most  im- 
portant Zoroastrian  formula,  first  in  its  correct  form  and  then 
in  the  corrupt  form  which  obtains  among  a  considerable  portion 
of  the  community  up  to  this  hour.  The  original  formula  is  as 
follows : — 

yatha  ahu  vairyo  atha  ratush  ashat  chit  hacha  vangheush 
dasda  manangho  shyaothananam  angheiish  Masdai  khshathremcha 
ahurai  a  yim  dregubyo  dadat  vastarem. 

The  corrupt  form  of  the  same: — 

athau  veryo  tharc  tose  sade  chide  chavanghoise  dezda 
manengho  sotthenanam  anghyos  Masdae  khosetharamchae  orae 
diyem  daregobyo  daredar   vastarem,. 

This,  however,  did  not  trouble  the  orthodox,  for  they  com- 
placently remarked  that  as  long  as  they  had  implicit  faith  in 
what  they  recited,  and  recited  it  whole-heartedly,  it  mattered 
very  little  whether  they  used  correct  pronunciation  or  not. 
Ormazd  looked  to  their  hearts,  and  not  to  their  sense  of  grammar 
and  orthography.  So  long  as  their  motives  were  good,  their 
prayers  were  acceptable  to  the  Heavenly  Father. 

The  redeeming  feature  of  this  entire  controversy  has  been 
that  of  late  there  is  a  growing  tendency  in  the  community  to  avail 


346  THE  REFORM  MOVEMENT 

itself  of  the  help  of  the  philologist,  who  has  brought  nearer 
home  to  them  the  correct  and  carefully  edited  version  of  their 
sacred  scriptures,  and  they  have  consequently  begun  to  recite 
their  daily  prayers  from  books  that  have  based  their  texts  on 
the  standard  and  authorized  version  of  the  liturgy. 

Too  much  ritualism,  protested  the  reformer.  The  mechani- 
cal handling  of  the  ritual,  which  was  as  much  unintelligible  in 
its  real  purport  to  the  priest  who  performed  it  as  it  was  to  the 
layman  who  ordered  it,  failed  to  satisfy  the  new  school.  The 
orthodox  maintained  that  although  the  priestly  authorities  them- 
selves had  lost  the  key  of  the  mysteries  of  the  ceremonies  and 
were  unable  to  understand  their  meaning,  nevertheless  untold 
good  accrued  to  those  who  devoutly  ordered  such  ceremonies  for 
their  own  merit.  They  entertained  a  pious  hope  that  the  lost  key 
would  some  day  be  recovered,  and  the  hidden  secrets  brought  to 
the  light  of  day. 

The  reformers  urged  that  a  vast  structure  of  formalism  and 
ritual  had  replaced  the  edifice  of  the  simple  faith,  and  religion 
had  simply  turned  into  ritualism.  They  dwelt  especially  on  the 
subjective  value  of  the  ritual,  and  argued  that  however  elaborate 
and  expensive  the  ceremony  might  be,  it  was  of  no  value  if  it 
failed  to  symbolize  a  moral  idea  for  the  faithful  who  ordered  it. 
Ceremonial  observances,  they  complained,  were  given  greater 
importance  than  moral  observance.  Righteousness  was  identified 
with  rituals.  They  were  only  a  clothing  of  religion,  but  the 
ethical  substance  of  religion  was  of  greater  importance  than  the 
clothing  itself.  Religion,  they  urged,  does  not  consist  in  laying 
up  merit  by  ceremonials.  The  orthodox  retorted  that  the  ritual 
as  such  had  an  intrinsic  value  and  inherent  merit,  and  the  more 
such  rites  were  performed,  the  greater  was  the  merit  assured 
to  the  faithful.  The  new  school  said  that  these  ceremonials 
may  perhaps  serve  as  a  means  of  conveying  ethical  ideas  to  a 
backward  people,  but  the  Parsis  were  not  a  backward  people. 
Hence  they  did  not  need  them.  Righteousness  did  not  depend 
upon  such  ceremonial  observances,  but  upon  the  purity  of  man's 
inner  life.  Besides,  the  ceremonials  became  an  economic  drain 
on  the  slender  resources  of  the  credulous  poor,  who  incurred 
heavy  debts  for  their  performance,  which  was  displeasing  in  the 
sight  of  Ormazd.  The  orthodox  declared  these  statements  an 
Ahrimanian  onslaught  upon  the  Mazdayasnian  rites. 


THE  REFORM  MOVEMENT  347 

The  progressives  denounce  the  intercessory  prayers  for 
the  dead.  The  philological  researches  had  for  the  first  time 
brought  to  the  notice  of  the  Parsis  the  fact  of  the  sharp  dis- 
tinction between  man's  soul  and  his  Farohar.  From  what  has 
been  stated  in  earlier  pages,  it  can  be  clearly  seen  how  this 
essential  difference  was  lost  sight  of,  as  early  as  during  the 
later  Pahlavi  period.  The  soul  and  the  Farohar  were  taken  to 
be  one  and  the  same  by  the  Zoroastrians  before  the  philologist 
pointed  out  the  error.  Priest  and  layman,  the  learned  and  the 
illiterate  alike,  believed  implicitly  that  the  souls  of  the  dead 
profited  by  the  ceremonials  performed  in  their  honour  by  their 
relatives  in  this  world.  The  Avestan  and  Pahlavi  passages, 
which  speak  of  the  coming  of  the  Farohars  to  earth  at  the  period 
of  the  Fravardigan  festival,  seeking  invocation  and  sacrifice, 
were  understood  by  the  entire  community  as  indubitably  referring 
to  the  coming  of  the  souls  of  the  dead.^ 

According  to  the  general  conviction,  the  supplications  offered 
by  the  living  procured  either  a  remission  of  the  sins  committed 
by  the  deceased  in  this  world,  or  else  a  specific  merit  for  the 
good  deeds  he  had  done.  It  was  this  strong  faith  in  the  efficacy 
of  the  ceremonials  to  help  the  struggling  soul  in  either  making 
its  way  out  of  hell,  or  in  ascending  upwards  through  the  graded 
heavens  in  the  next  world,  that  inspired  the  loving  and  dutiful 
survivors  to  order  elaborate  rituals  for  the  spiritual  welfare  of 
the  departed.  Propitiatory  offerings  were  made,  and  penitential 
prayers  were  recited  to  secure  a  better  lot  for  the  souls  of  the 
dead,  and  the  performance  of  these  periodical  rites  was  most 
zealously  observed.  Rich  viands  were  consecrated  in  the  name 
of  the  deceased.  Whatever  kind  of  food  or  drink  the  departed 
ones  had  best  liked  in  life  were  specially  prepared.  On  the  last 
day  of  the  festival,  moreover,  when  the  souls  were  believed  to 
leave  this  world  and  return  to  that  beyond,  food  and  drink  were 
offered  them  to  assuage  the  hunger  and  thirst  on  their  return 
journey,  while  money  in  copper  and  silver  was  dedicated  to  them 
to  meet  their  travelling  expenses. 

The  recital  of  the  Patit,  or  expiatory  prayer,  forms  an  im- 
portant part  of  the  ceremonies  performed  in  honour  of  the  dead. 
The  relatives  and  friends  of  the  deceased  still  engage  a  priest 

^  K.  M.  Modi,  Kholase  Majdiasne,  pp.  91-95.  101-106,  Bombay,  1853; 
Suryoday,  vol.  2,  pp.   113-117,   158-161,  Bombay,  1868. 


348  THE  REFORM  MOVEMENT 

to  recite  it,  and  do  the  same  themselves  for  the  expiation  and 
welfare  of  the  soul  when  it  is  embarking  on  its  journey  to  the 
next  world  after  death.  The  devout  generally  keep  up  this 
observance  daily  for  at  least  a  month,  or  throughout  the  first 
year,  or  in  many  cases  for  a  still  longer  period. 

The  reformers  took  up  the  question  and  said  that  Zoroastrian- 
ism  enjoined  that  a  man  went  to  the  abode  of  weal  or  woe 
according  to  his  deserts,  and  that  no  amount  of  ceremonials  per- 
formed by  the  living  could  either  mitigate  his  sufferings  or  im- 
prove his  condition  in  the  spiritual  world.  His  sins  could  not 
be  atoned  for  by  elaborate  rituals  performed  in  his  name,  nor 
would  he  be  one  whit  the  happier  for  them.  It  is  true,  they 
further  said,  that  according  to  the  scriptures,  the  benefit  of  the 
ceremonials  performed  for  the  dead  accrues  to  the  soul  during 
the  first  three  nights  after  death,  while  it  still  hovers  over  the 
body,  but  from  the  period  of  the  dawn  of  the  fourth  day,  when 
justice  is  administered  to  the  soul,  and  it  is  awarded  its  special 
place,  the  rituals  do  not  affect  its  position.  Any  ceremonies 
performed  after  this  day,  that  is,  on  the  monthly  and  yearly 
anniversaries  or  on  any  other  occasions,  are  mainly  for  the 
Farohar  of  the  dead  man,  and  not  for  his  soul.  In  fact,  it  was 
claimed,  these  rites  are  more  for  the  interest  of  the  living  than  for 
the  imagined  interest  of  the  dead.  Zoroastrianism,  they  said, 
never  stood  for  any  kind  of  vicarious  salvation,  for  the  question 
of  salvation  or  damnation  rested  on  the  individual's  own  deeds. 
Neither  would  the  expiatory  prayers  recited  by  the  living  wash 
out  the  sins  of  the  dead,  nor  would  the  propitiatory  sacrifices 
offered  by  them  induce  the  heavenly  judges  to  revoke  their 
decision.  As  the  man  sows,  so  shall  he  reap,  is  the  immortal 
truth  taught  by  Zoroaster.  Merit,  they  contended,  cannot  be 
purchased  at  a  price,  and  sin  cannot  be  expiated  by  proxy.  It 
was  destroying  the  true  spirit  of  the  prophet's  great  religion  to 
entertain  such  degrading  ideas  of  vicarious  expiation  which  had 
been  fastened  on  Zoroastrianism. 

These  scathing  criticisms  seriously  wounded  the  religious 
susceptibilities  of  the  orthodox,  who  became  unsparing  in  the 
vehement  denunciation  of  the  reformers,  charging  them  as  re- 
actionaries with  carrying  the  religious  barque  to  ruin.  They 
branded  the  attempts  of  the  reformers  as  blasphemous  and  as  an 
irreverent  prying  into  the  divine  work  of  Ormazd.     Bitter  words 


THE  REFORM  MOVEMENT  349 

were  exchanged  between  the  rival  parties,  and  abuses  and  in- 
vectives, ridicule  and  obloquy,  became  rampant. 

The  reformers  inveigh  against  holding  woman  impure 
during  her  menses.  A  woman  during  this  period  is  supposed  to 
be  possessed  of  the  demons.  She  is  made  to  retire  to  a  secluded 
part  of  the  house,  staying  away  from  every  object  that  might 
be  polluted  by  her  touch,  lest  she  should  defile  them  by  con- 
tact. Her  food  is  served  to  her  from  a  distance  so  that  she  may 
not  touch  the  utensils.  Even  her  look  defiles  a  consecrated  object, 
just  as  her  touch  pollutes  it.  Her  glance  that  might  chance  to  fall 
upon  one  engaged  in  prayers  nullifies  his  devotional  utterances. 
Her  approach  to  a  holy  place  of  worship  desecrates  it.  The 
Avestan  and  Pahlavi  works  are  full  of  rigorous  prescriptions  on 
this  subject. 

The  new  school  assailed  this  practice  as  an  outcome  of  rank 
superstition.  They  declared  that  the  periodical  flow  of  blood 
during  the  menses  was  a  normal  monthly  sickness  of  woman. 
It  was  no  more  than  a  periodical  disease.  At  the  most  woman 
needed  rest  during  this  period,  and  the  elders,  with  the  hygienic 
principles  in  mind,  it  was  pointed  out,  had  framed  such  rigorous 
rules,  and  put  them  under  a  religious  guise,  in  order  to  insure 
implicit  obedience  from  an  ignorant  people  who  neither  under- 
stood the  rules  for  the  preservation  of  bodily  health,  nor  cared 
for  them.  Modern  society,  they  said,  with  its  profounder  knowl- 
edge of  hygiene,  no  longer  needed  such  archaic  injunctions.  It 
was  debasing  woman  to  taboo  her  as  unclean  and  impure  at  such 
a  time.  It  was  ruthless  to  prevent  her,  according  to  the  custom 
that  obtained,  from  having  even  a  last  look  at  any  one  who 
happmed  to  die  in  her  house  during  her  menses.  It  was  bad 
theobgy,  they  vehemently  argued,  which  deprived  an  unfor- 
tunate woman  even  of  the  opportunity  of  resting  her  loving  eyes 
on  the  remains  of  her  dead  husband,  or  child,  on  the  ground  of  a 
superstitious  plea  that  her  look  would  exercise  an  unwholesome 
influence  on  the  soul  of  the  dead,  and  seriously  disturb  it  during 
the  time  of  severing  its  final  connection  with  the  body. 

This  attitude  towards  an  established  belief  greatly  wounded 
the  feelings  of  the  faithful,  who  cursed  the  new  knowledge  that 
had  so  perverted  the  minds  of  the  younger  generation,  while 
others  held  that  too  much  ado  was  made  over  a  question  that 
would  die  a  natural  death  with  the  advance  of  real  enlighten- 


350  THE  REFORM  MOVEMENT 

ment.  Left  to  the  workings  of  time,  they  maintained,  social  and 
intellectual  progress  would  soon  relegate  the  custom  to  oblivion. 

Controversy  over  the  religious  practice  of  using  the 
urine  of  cattle.  The  very  first  thing  that  a  Parsi  is  expected  to 
do  immediately  after  leaving  his  bed  is  to  take  a  handful  of  bull's, 
or  cow's,  or  she-goat's  urine  and,  upon  reciting  a  spell  com- 
posed in  Pazand,  to  rub  it  over  his  face,  hands,  and  feet.  The 
reformer  declared  that  the  filthy  practice  was  highly  objectionable, 
and  should  be  done  away  with.  This  shocked  the  sentiment  of 
righteousness  in  the  orthodox  believer.  He  retorted  that  the 
liquid  had  great  purifying  qualities,  and  its  use  should  be  con- 
tinued. The  reformer  replied  that  it  may  indeed  have  served 
as  a  disinfectant  for  humanity  in  its  infancy,  but  in  these  days 
of  better  and  purer  appliances  for  bodily  cleanliness  we  need  no 
more  of  the  dirty  stuff.  But  the  liquid,  expostulated  the  orthodox, 
has  other  latent  qualities  too.  It  repels  the  demoniac  powers 
that  happen  to  take  possession  of  man  during  sleep ;  what  greater 
proof,  in  truth,  of  its  mysterious  power  can  be  had  than  the 
fact  that  when  once  consecrated  it  never  becomes  putrid  ?  Tracts 
and  pamphlets  were  issued  on  both  sides,  and  a  heated  contro- 
versy ensued  in  the  Parsi  press.  The  reformer  to-day  has  given 
up  the  practice  altogether,  but  the  orthodox  continues  still  most 
scrupulously  to  use  it  every  morning. 

The  good  sense  of  the  disputants  saves  the  community 
from  being  split  into  sects.  The  reformers  were  termed  the 
Parsi  Protestants  and  were  charged  with  thinking  in  terms  of 
Christianity.  They  were  said  to  be  fired  by  the  sole  ambition  of 
being  original,  and  of  setting  at  naught  the  achievements  of  their 
elders  for  the  last  three  thousand  years.  The  reformers  replied 
that  they  were  simply  looking  to  antiquity  for  models  for  their 
conduct  and  were  profiting  solely  by  the  vast  experience  of  the 
past.  But  at  the  same  time,  they  rejoined,  the  orthodox  should 
remember  that  the  ancients  had  tackled  the  religious  and  cere- 
monial questions  that  arose  in  their  own  days  according  to  light 
that  had  prevailed  in  the  past.  Those  of  that  day  had  not  done 
the  thinking  for  all  times  to  come,  with  injunctions  to  the  future 
generations  to  act  in  strict  accordance  with  them.  They  alone 
had  not  the  monopoly  to  think,  and  had  not  given  the  final 
mandate  to  acquiesce  in  all  that  they  had  believed.  Besides,  a 
return  to  the  past  could  not  bring  unalloyed  happiness  to  the 


THE  REFORM  MOVEMENT  3Si 

Parsis  in  the  present  times.  The  community,  it  was  urged,  can- 
not afford  to  transplant  itself  back  to  the  age  of  the  Vendidad. 
There  was  no  use  sticking  to  outworn  forms  and  seeking  to  give 
them  a  new  lease  of  life.  It  was  futile  to  attempt  to  support 
delusions,  and  the  orthodox,  they  said,  should  not  throw  all 
possible  shackles  in  the  way  of  progress  by  hampering  and 
paralyzing  the  well-meant  efforts  of  the  new  school. 

Such,  in  brief  form,  is  the  story  of  the  opening  of  the  conflict 
between  conservative  and  free  thought  among  the  Parsis  in 
India,  which  rent  the  community  into  two  sections.  The  rival 
parties,  however,  did  not  make  any  formal  division  between 
themselves.  The  reformers  did  not  venture  to  contemplate  so 
complete  a  break  with  the  orthodox  as  would  culminate  in  the 
establishment  of  a  reformed  Church.  The  orthodox  could  not 
excommunicate  the  reformers  even  if  they  would.  The  orthodox 
had  to  content  themselves  with  condemning  the  reformers,  and 
the  reformers  by  satirizing  the  orthodox.  Even  to-day  the  main 
disputes  over  some  of  these  vital  problems  remain  much  the  same 
as  they  were  six  decades  ago,  and  the  battle  goes  on,  still  to  be 
won. 


CHAPTER  XLV 
PARSI  THEOSOPHISTS 

Inquiring  minds  seek  a  deeper  meaning  of  life.  At  this 
period  of  transition,  when  the  old  practices  seemed  to  have 
spent  their  force,  and  the  younger  generation  was  drifting 
towards  indifference  in  religious  matters,  there  were  other  forces 
at  work  which  heralded  the  rise  of  a  new  class  of  dissenters. 
Those  of  a  prosaic  and  matter-of-fact  turn  of  mind  in  the  com- 
munity had  steadily  doubted  the  statements  that  did  not  admit 
of  a  rational  justification,  and  refused  to  believe  in  anything 
mysterious  and  mystical  in  religion.  But  human  life  cannot 
altogether  be  stripped  of  mystery.  Rationalism  is  not  the  whole 
of  human  nature.  Besides,  the  state  of  doubts  and  disbeliefs 
that  prevailed  in  the  community  could  not  last  long.  Man  is 
essentially  a  religious  being.  He  feels  an  inherent  need  in  him- 
self for  some  form  of  religious  belief  which  would  satisfy  the 
yearnings  of  his  spirit — that  irrepressible  heart-hunger  of  the 
human  soul. 

The  Parsi  priesthood,  as  custodians  of  the  conscience  of  the 
community,  zealously  guarded  and  conserved  the  dogmatic 
teachings  and  traditions,  but  they  were  unable  to  work  for  the 
adaptation  of  the  traditional  material  to  the  contemporary  situa- 
tion. They  were  incapable,  at  the  time,  of  helping  the  com- 
munity in  its  religious  crisis.  Persons  who  thought  that  the 
rationalism  of  the  new  school  ignored  an  essential  part  of  human 
nature  when  it  discarded  the  emotional  side  of  man,  to  which 
man  was  indebted  for  some  of  his  noblest  virtues,  yearned  for 
new  light.  If  that  light  did  not  come  from  within,  they  would 
welcome  it  from  without.  At  this  juncture  the  Theosophical 
Society  opened  its  propaganda  in  India,  and  a  number  of  Parsis 
eagerly  embraced  the  movement. 

The  mode  of  living  of  the  Parsi  theosophists  is  more 
austere  than  that  of  their  neighbours.  In  the  early  eighties 
of  the  last  century  the  Parsi  members  of  the  Theosophical  Society 

352 


PARSI  THEOSOPHISTS  353 

entered  the  arena  of  religious  controversy  and  gave  new  zest  to  it. 
Since  that  time,  or  during  the  last  three  decades,  they  have 
produced  a  fairly  considerable  literature  in  Gujarati,  and  are  at 
present  a  potent  factor  in  shaping  the  religious  beliefs  of  a  sec- 
tion of  the  community  through  their  active  propaganda.  Hitherto 
ritual  observances,  theological  dogmas,  and  ecclesiastical  usages 
had  occupied  a  most  conspicuous  place  in  the  religious  con- 
troversies. The  Parsi  theosophists  have  introduced  metaphysical 
themes  such  as  the  nature  of  Being,  a  personal  or  an  impersonal 
God,  creation  or  emanation,  reincarnation,  and  such  like  for  dis- 
cussion. This  is  significant  as  an  indication  of  a  higher  phase 
in  religious  polemics.  They  have  shown  a  strong  tendency 
towards  mysticism  in  religion.  They  do  not  flee  from  the  sight 
and  sound  of  man  and  withdraw  themselves  to  the  fastness  of 
the  jungle,  nor  do  they  mortify  their  flesh,  but  their  code  of 
ethics  comprises  the  ascetic  virtues,  tempered  by  the  spirit  of 
the  age.  Celibacy  is  held  to  be  the  primal  virtue.  The  strin- 
gency of  the  commandment  is  relaxed,  it  is  true,  in  the  case 
of  the  members  of  the  exoteric  section  and  that  of  the  less 
ambitious  members  of  the  esoteric  section  of  the  cult;  but  it  is 
strictly  enjoined  upon  those  who  aspire  to  the  higher  planes  of 
existence.  The  prospect  of  some  day  crossing  the  threshold  of 
the  lower  plane  deters  many  a  Zoroastrian  youth  in  India  from 
entering  into  the  hallowed  state  of  matrimony,  and  raises  a  class 
of  Parsi  celibates.  Modern  society  has  sanctioned  social  service, 
and  the  Parsi  theosophists  have  not  been  slow  in  embodying  it  in 
their  code  of  morals.  In  their  early  days,  when  they  were  not 
strong  enough  in  number  and  influence,  they  contented  themselves 
with  retiring,  more  or  less,  within  themselves,  and  with  living 
as  silent  dissenters ;  but  with  growing  strength,  they  have  been 
seen  of  late  actively  working  to  propagate  their  ideas.  Prose- 
lytizing zeal  has  made  them  aggressive ;  and  despite  their  frequent 
protestations  to  the  contrary  theirs  is  certainly  a  sectarian  creed. 
They  are  as  much  bound  by  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  hard 
and  fast  rules  of  their  esoteric  circle  as  are  the  clergy  of  any 
religion  to  its  rigid  dogmas. 

The  Parsi  theosophists  abstain  from,  animal  food.  We 
have  already  referred  to  the  sect  of  the  Parsi  ascetics  of  the 
seventeenth  century  who  lived  exclusively  on  the  products  of  the 
earth;  and  individual  instances  of  Zoroastrians  abstaining  from 


354  PARSI  THEOSOPHISTS 

meat  diet  altogether  are  not  wanting.  Sporadic  attempts  to 
preach  vegetarianism  have  been  made  from  time  to  time  down 
to  the  present,  and  not  a  few  works  on  the  subject  actually  were 
printed  as  early  as  the  middle  of  the  last  century. 

But  it  was  left  for  the  Parsi  theosophists  of  our  own  time 
to  open  an  organized  crusade  against  the  use  of  animal  food. 
In  their  zeal  for  investing  their  statements  with  religious  sanc- 
tion, they  have  collected  passages  from  the  Iranian  scriptures 
showing  compassionate  tenderness  to  the  animal  kingdom,  and 
have  argued  on  the  strength  of  these  that  Zoroastrianism  forbids 
flesh-eating.  The  dishes  of  animal  food  that  their  coreligionists 
place  in  their  ceremonies  are  declared  to  repel  the  angels  and  to 
attract  the  demons.  When  it  is  pointed  out  to  these  zealous  con- 
troversialists that  the  Zoroastrian  writings  of  all  periods  abound 
in  passages  to  the  contrary,  they  say  that  these  passages  do  not 
convey  the  meaning  that  the  philologists  attribute  to  them,  but 
are  full  of  mystic  and  occult  sense.  When  again  they  are  led  to 
see  that  their  arguments  on  this  point  are  untenable,  and  that 
they  cannot  safely  retreat  behind  the  mystic  and  occult  interpre- 
tations to  explain  away  the  texts  as  allegories,  they  retort  that 
the  Iranian  world  was  in  the  wrong  throughout  the  various 
epochs  of  its  history.  Zoroaster,  they  add,  could  never  have 
encouraged  this  carnivorous  habit  among  mankind,  which  entails 
so  much  agony  and  suffering.  Justice  and  kindness  to  the  senti- 
ent creatures  demand  that  man  should  not  fatten  his  flesh  by 
the  flesh  of  innocent  beings,  but  should  have  regard  for  life  in 
general  and  should  realize  that  he  has  no  right  to  inflict  pain  and 
death  upon  dumb  creatures.  Animal  slaughter  for  food  is  not 
consistent  with  the  commandment  of  compassion  to  animals.  But, 
above  all,  animal  food  is  unclean.  Man's  spiritual  growth  is 
stunted  by  it,  and  the  eating  of  animal  food,  as  incompatible 
with  righteousness,  forms  an  insurmountable  barrier  to-  the 
spiritual  development  of  man.  No  amount  of  piety  can  redeem 
him,  and  no  austerities  can  free  him  from  damnation.  The 
movement  is  gaining  ground  among  a  considerable  portion  of  both 
sexes   in   the  community. 

Zoroastrianism,  however,  has  no  scruples  against  a  meat 
diet.  Not  only  did  meat  form  an  ordinary  article  of  consump- 
tion by  the  laity  as  well  as  by  the  clergy  from  the  earliest  days, 
but  viands  prepared  of  meat  were  consecrated  at  the  ritual  in 


PARSI  THEOSOPHISTS  355 

honour  of  the  celestial  beings  as  well  as  of  the  dead.  Such  was 
the  case  at  all  different  periods  of  Iranian  history,  as  proved  by 
the  scriptural  texts  themselves  and  from  other  sources,  and  such 
is  the  case  to-day. 

Although  the  Zoroastrian  Church  has  never  countenanced  the 
vegetarian  movement,  there  are  certain  occasions  when  meat 
diet  is  avoided.  For  example,  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
community  has  not,  for  ages,  partaken  of  meat  on  four  days  of 
every  month,  which  are  dedicated  to  the  angel  Bahman,  the 
genius  of  cattle  on  the  material  side,  and  to  his  associates,  Mohor, 
Gosh,  and  Ram.  Long  usage,  moreover,  prescribes  that  the 
members  of  a  family  in  which  death  has  occurred  shall  abstain 
from  meat  food  for  three  consecutive  days.  Disregard  of  the 
practice  is  regarded  as  a  sin  in  a  Rivayat.^ 

Time  has  wrought  some  change  in  the  manner  of  consecrating 
meat  offerings  in  the  ceremonials.  Up  to  the  middle  of  the  last 
century  the  priest  consecrated  the  fresh  tongue,  the  jaw,  and  the 
left  eye  of  the  sacrificial  animal  to  the  angel  Hom,  just  as  his 
ancestors,  in  accordance  with  a  chapter  in  the  Horn  Yasht  of 
the  Yasna,  did  in  the  days  of  remote  antiquity.  The  learned 
Gujarati  versionist  of  the  Yasna  in  the  middle  of  the  last  century 
inveighs  against  this  practice,  and  allegorically  explains  the 
passages,  Ys.  11.  4,  5,  that  served  as  authority  for  the  custom.- 
The  custom  of  offering  such  a  portion  of  flesh  no  longer  prevails. 
It  was  similarly  the  practice  until  very  recently  with  the  officiating 
priest  to  slaughter  a  goat  with  his  own  hands  on  the  third  day 
after  the  death  of  a  person,  and  to  dedicate  the  fat  to  the  fire 
on  the  dawn  of  the  fourth  day  when  the  soul  of  the  deceased 
person  migrated  to  the  next  world. ^  This  custom  likewise  has 
now  become  obsolete. 

Custodians  of  the  only  key  to  Zoroastrianism.  Zoroaster 
and  his  disciples,  the  theosophical  interpreters  tell  us,  wrote  in 
a  mystic  language  which  conveys  a  double  meaning.  The  exoteric, 
or  surface  meaning,  is  intended  for  the  vulgar,  and  the  esoteric, 
or  inner  meaning,  is  designed  only  for  the  initiates.  The  adepts 
of  various  periods  are  the  ones  who  possess  the  mysterious  key 
to  the  chamber  of  hidden  truths.  The  last  of  such  Parsi  adepts 
was  Azar  Kaivan,  w'ho  died  at  Patna  in  1614.     With  his  death 

*  Marzbanji,  Ithoter  Rivayat,  p.  155,   Bombay,   1846. 

*  Aspandiarji,  Ijashne  ba  maeni,  p.   loi,   Bombay,   1849. 
^  Marzbanji,   Ithoter  Rivayat,  pp.   125-127. 


3S6  PARSI  THEOSOPHISTS 

this  key  was  lost.  Occult  science  alone,  it  was  asserted,  could 
explain  and  vindicate  the  allegorical  teachings  of  Zoroaster. 
Providence  has  blessed  the  founders  of  the  Theosophical  Society 
with  the  possession  of  a  master-key  that  opens  the  secret  cham- 
bers of  the  hidden  knowledge  of  all  religions.  In  pious  sub- 
mission to  the  mandates  of  the  hidden  Mahatmas  of  Tibet,  who 
have  handed  it  over  to  them  and  who  have  initiated  them  into 
the  deepest  secrets  of  existence,  the  inspired  leaders  of  the 
society  have  undertaken  the  mighty  work  of  applying  the  key 
to  all  religions — Zoroastrianism  being  one  of  them — in  order  to 
unravel  the  mysteries  of  the  esoteric  teachings.  Their  claim  to 
be  in  direct  communication  with  the  divine  beings  is  not  ques- 
tioned by  the  Parsi  members  of  the  society.  The  latter  are  fas- 
cinated by  the  statements  of  the  adepts,  who  with  astounding 
confidence  and  ease  describe  in  detail  the  affairs  of  the  world 
of  spirits  with  as  much  familiarity  as  one  would  speak  of  the 
inmates  of  the  adjoining  house. 

The  Mahatmas  of  the  White  Lodge  of  the  Himalayan 
Brothers,  as  they  are  called,  guard  the  sacred  scriptures  in 
subterranean  libraries.  The  lost  Nasks,  we  are  informed,  will 
one  day  be  restored  to  the  Parsis,  their  legitimate  owners,  when 
they  shall  have  prepared  themselves  for  it  through  the  teachings 
of  the  Theosophical  Society.  Even  now  those  members  of  the 
esoteric  section  of  the  Theosophical  Society  that  have  developed 
the  occult  powers  are  initiated  into  the  mysteries  and  already 
permitted  to  read  these  hidden  records.  The  knowledge  that  they 
therefore  disclose  to  the  outer  world  is  based  on  certainty.  For 
instance,  the  Avestan  scholar,  basing  his  arguments  on  historical 
and  philological  proofs,  places  the  age  of  Zoroaster  from  about 
700  to  1000  B.C.,  but  the  theosophist  with  his  occult  knowledge 
asserts  that  he  flourished  20,000  B.C.  The  scholar  may  call  it 
extravagant  and  fantastic,  but  the  initiated  knows  it  to  be  a  fact 
that  can  be  verified  by  occult  science.  Thus  gradually  will  the 
theosophists  succeed  in  unearthing  the  buried  truths  with  the 
help  of  the  master-key. 

Investing  Zoroastrianism  with  a  philosophical  garb.  The 
religious  system  of  Zoroaster  is  theological  rather  than  philo- 
sophical. This  theological  aspect  of  their  faith  does  not  satisfy 
the  Parsi  theosophists.  They  attempt  to  convert  their  faith  into 
religious  metaphysics   with   the   object  of   giving  it  a   rational 


PARSI  THEOSOPHISTS  357 

aspect.  They  aim  at  an  adjustment  of  the  fundamental  Zoro- 
astrian  concepts  according  to  the  standard  philosophy  of  their 
society,  which  is  an  eclectic  system  drawing  its  materials  mostly 
from  Hinduism  and  Buddhism,  and  which  is  subversive  of  the 
basic  principles  of  Zoroastrianism.  The  different  philosophical 
principles  and  theological  doctrines  of  various  religions  are  the 
distinguishing  features  by  which  one  religion  is  marked  out  as 
separate  from  another.  Would  this  philosophical  garb,  then, 
made  of  non-Zoroastrian  materials,  add  anything  to  the  inherent 
excellence  of  Zoroastrianism? 

Philosophy  attempts  to  give  a  rational  solution,  based  on 
human  observation  and  experimentation,  of  various  problems, 
which  religion  claims  to  solve  on  the  authority  of  prophetic 
revelation.  This  common  object  of  the  two  makes  philosophy 
and  religion  most  closely  interrelated  to  each  other.  Philosophy 
by  itself  can  never  be  an  all-sufficient  source  of  satisfying  the 
religious  needs  of  man.  The  divorce  of  religion  from  the  daily 
life  of  man  creates  a  blank  in  the  human  mind,  and  philosophy 
cannot  fill  it.  It  may  indeed  add  to  the  rational  completion  of  a 
religion,  but  it  can  never  act  as  a  substitute  for  faith.  Philosophy 
is  frequently  appealed  to  in  order  to  vindicate  religious  truths; 
and  when  the  inroads  of  scepticism  weaken  man's  faith  in  religion 
the  help  of  philosophy  is  often  sought  with  a  view  to  strengthen 
the  traditional  beliefs.  In  this  capacity  it  becomes  the  help- 
mate of  religion ;  but  the  friendly  relations  do  not  always  remain 
unbroken.  Religion  has  fixed  canons,  binding  traditions.  Its 
tendency  is  to  put  a  lasting  stamp  on  the  doctrines  for  all  times. 
It  rests  upon  the  teachings  of  a  prophet,  and  nourishes  them 
as  an  unchangeable  heritage.  Philosophy,  on  the  other  hand, 
progresses  with  the  times,  and  ever  encourages  fresh  inquiry. 
It  always  revolts  from  every  kind  of  dogmatic  teaching.  New 
questions  crop  up,  and  the  field  of  investigation  is  filled  with 
divergent  answers.  Hence  there  is  no  system  of  philosophy 
which  can  claim  absolute  truth.  There  are  as  many  philosophies 
as  there  are  philosophers.  These  come  and  go,  and  with  them 
the  cradle  of  the  speculative  thought  is  ever  swinging  to  and 
fro.  Religion  teaches  to  believe,  philosophy  teaches  to  doubt. 
Religion,  therefore,  does  not  reap  unqualified  success  when  it 
tries  to  adapt  its  doctrines  to  the  system  of  philosophy  current 
at  a  period,  in  order  to  meet  the  intellectual  wants  of  the  en- 


3S8  PARSI  THEOSOPHISTS 

lightened  classes.  When  it  thus  Hnks  its  destiny  with  philosophy, 
it  incurs  the  risk  of  losing  its  equilibrium,  and  is  forced  to  shift 
its  position  at  every  new  wave  of  philosophical  thought. 

But  to  return  from  this  digression.  The  established  theology 
of  the  Zoroastrian  Church,  based  on  the  deductions  from  the 
revealed  truth  of  Zoroaster,  of  which  it  was  the  sole  arbiter, 
retained  its  corporate  character.  Instances  were  not  wanting 
wherein  individuals  subscribed  to  certain  philosophical  sects. 
For  example,  Masudi  informs  us  that  Tansar,  the  illustrious 
Dastur  of  Ardashir,  was  deeply  imbued  with  the  doctrines  of 
Plato.*  Independent  attempts,  however,  on  the  part  of  such 
individuals  at  the  philosophical  secularization  of  their  scriptures 
were  discouraged  by  the  Iranians,  Religion  and  philosophy  did 
not  proceed  hand  in  hand  in  Iran.  Indian  and  Greek  philosophies 
were  not  unknown  to  the  Iranians,  for  there  was  a  constant 
interchange  of  ideas  between  Persia  on  one  side  and  India  and 
Greece  on  the  other,  as  ever  since  the  days  of  Pythagoras 
Greek  and  Indian  philosophers  frequented  the  Persian  court. 
Plotinus,  the  great  neo-Platonist  philosopher,  had  come  to  Persia 
during  the  early  period  of  the  Sasanians.  The  philosophers  driven 
away  from  the  court  of  Justinian,  when  that  emperor  prohibited 
the  teaching  of  philosophy  and  finally  closed  the  philosophical 
schools  in  Athens  a.d.  529,  had  taken  refuge  at  the  latitudinarian 
court  of  Noshirvan.  This  king  was  a  great  patron  of  letters,  and 
the  literary  luminaries  of  the  civilized  world  flocked  to  his  court. 
Many  philosophical  works,  along  with  those  on  science  and  litera- 
ture, were  translated  from  Sanskrit  and  Greek  into  Pahlavi  at 
the  royal  command.  But  we  do  not  find  any  systematic  attempt 
at  interpreting  the  Zoroastrian  religion  in  the  light  of  such  phi- 
losophies. Even  in  their  polemics  with  the  great  heresiarchs  or 
the  learned  divines  of  the  rival  faiths  and  creeds,  the  established 
church  never  availed  itself  of  this  help.  In  fact  the  utilitarian 
genius  of  the  Persians  led  them  to  disparage  metaphysical  specu- 
lation as  a  vain  attempt  at  the  impracticable. 

Religion  should  be  such  that  its  ideals  can  be  applied  to 
our  workaday  world.  Its  teachings  should  be  applicable  to  the 
exigencies  of  daily  life.  It  should  find  expression  in  all  the  small 
and  great  acts  of  man's  life.     Its  influence  on  the  life  of  the 

*  Darmesteter,  Lettre  de  Tansar  au  roi  de  Tabaristan,  in  JA.,  vol. 
144,  p.  186. 


PARSI  THEOSOPHISTS  359 

individual  should  not  be  casual  and  spasmodic,  but  constant.  It 
should  be  a  living  and  a  w^orking  factor,  not  a  mere  accident  in 
life.  Pure  philosophy  could  not  do  this.  Abstruse  problems  of 
philosophy  appeal  more  to  the  reason  than  to  the  imagination,  and 
therefore  cannot  affect  the  masses  who  are  greatly  moved  by 
imagination.  Philosophical  disquisition  and  metaphysical  theories 
are  inaccessible  to  the  commonplace  understanding;  but  religion 
is  for  the  generality  of  mankind.  This  is  the  characteristic  of 
Zoroastrianism  through  its  very  simplicity,  and  the  application  of 
its  simple  religious  theories  to  the  practical  life  of  the  community 
has  made  it  great. 

The  theosophists  attempt  to  construct  a  scientific  basis 
for  Zoroastrianism.  The  Parsi  theosophists  ransack  the  Zoro- 
astrian  texts  in  search  for  a  possible  clue  to  interpret  every  new 
scientific  discovery  of  to-day  and  assert  in  vague  statements  that 
the  sacred  books  anticipated  the  discovery  by  centuries,  and  that 
the  scientific  world  is  only  now  being  ultimately  drawn  to  this 
truth.  Thus,  they  maintain,  they  keep  Zoroastrianism  abreast  of 
the  times,  and  by  thus  adapting  the  ancient  writings  to  the  latest 
modern  inventions  they  help  to  make  the  religion  of  Zarathushtra 
acceptable  to  the  enlightened  youth  of  to-day. 

In  this  connection  it  may  frankly  be  acknowledged  that  the 
new  discoveries  in  the  field  of  scientific  research  have  given  a 
rude  shock  to  the  old-time  inherited  theories,  and  a  cosmology 
like  that  of  the  Bundahishn  stands  controverted  in  the  light  of 
modern  knowledge.  Its  twelve  thousand  years,  as  the  avowed  age 
of  the  universe,  have  long  elapsed  from  the  epoch  when  Ormazd 
first  began  the  great  work  of  creation,  but  the  end  is  not  yet  come. 
Ormazd,  as  is  now  conceded,  did  not  create  this  world  in  six  suc- 
cessive periods  that  made  a  year  of  three  hundred  and  sixty-five 
days.  Furthermore,  the  earth  is  not  fixed  in  the  centre  of  the 
universe  like  the  yolk  in  the  tgg,  nor  is  it  eternally  stationary, 
nor  does  the  sun  revolve  around  the  earth.  These  and  many 
like  theories  to  interpret  the  laws  of  nature  were  attuned  to  the 
intellectual  atmosphere  of  the  different  ages  that  originated 
them.  These  ancient  views  are  the  individual  opinions  of  the 
physicists  of  the  Avestan  and  Pahlavi  periods,  and  should  not  be 
credited  with  divine  inspiration,  as  men  have  often  erroneously 
done.  Religion  is  not  a  repository  of  physical  science,  and  such 
theories  do  not  form  part  of  Zoroastrianism.     The  ethical  prin- 


36o  PARSI  THEOSOPHISTS 

ciples  of  Zarathushtra  transcend  all  time.     They  are  the  eternal 
elements  that  constitute  his  religion. 

The  theosophists  summarily  reject  the  method  of  the 
philologist  adopted  in  interpreting  the  sacred  texts.  In  their 
zeal  for  discovering  great  truths  buried  under  the  seemingly 
simple  texts,  but  really  pregnant  with  deep  meaning,  these 
esoterics  have  often  been  inclined  to  invest  legends  and  myths 
with  a  symbolic  significance,  and  much  that  could  be  relegated 
to  the  realm  of  poetry  has  been  included  in  the  sphere  of  serious 
Hterature.  The  theosophical  writers  among  the  modern  Parsis 
have  alleged  that  the  philologists,  being  bound  by  the  fetters  of 
literalism  in  the  interpretation  of  the  sacred  texts,  generally  take 
a  statement  at  its  face  value  and  adhere  to  the  surface  meaninsr. 
The  theosophists  choose  to  lean  upon  the  miraculous  and  mys- 
terious, rather  than  to  follow  the  recognized  canons  of  the  method 
of  reasoning.  The  sense  of  proportion,  critical  acumen,  the  his- 
torical sense,  accurate  thinking,  and  such  preliminary  requisites 
of  modern  scholarship  are  conspicuous  by  their  absence  in  the 
interpretations  of  most  of  the  Parsi  theosophists.  Flashes  of 
vague  thought  are  regarded  as  inspiration,  and  visions  are  taken 
for  verities. 

Passage  after  passage  in  the  Zoroastrian  scriptures  has 
been  explained  to  signify  what  it  does  not  mean  in  the  original. 
The  following  may  be  adduced  as  a  specimen: — The  pastoral 
people  in  Ancient  Iran  had  found  a  faithful  sentinel  in 
the  dog,  and  that  animal,  as  shown  by  the  Avesta,  occupied 
an  exalted  place  among  the  Iranians  from  the  earliest  ages; 
three  chapters  of  the  Vendidad  in  fact  were  devoted  to  this 
indispensable  companion  of  the  household.  All  scholars  in 
accord  with  the  traditional  interpretation  have  naturally  taken 
these  passages  as  the  fragments  of  an  old  Iranian  canine  litera- 
ture. But  the  theosophists  brand  this  explanation  as  absurd,  and 
discern  in  the  chapters  an  allegorical  description  of  conscience 
and  its  workings.  Space  here  precludes  the  citation  of  other 
examples  of  this  kind. 

When  the  linguists  challenge  such  interpretations  of  the  an- 
cient texts,  they  are  informed  that  their  inability  to  reconcile  them- 
selves to  the  new  esoteric  explanations  is  due  to  the  fact  of  not 
having  yet  sufficiently  developed  their  spiritual  faculties.  Highly 
pungent  bitterness  is  marked  in  the  controversy  carried  on  be- 


PARSI  THEOSOPHISTS  361 

tween  the  two  parties  up  to  this  day.  The  theosophists  in  this 
controversy  denounce  the  philologists,  and  the  philologists  de- 
nounce the  theosophists.  Mahatmaic  cult  and  modern  scholar- 
ship cannot  flourish  together. 

Parsi  theosophists  as  champions  of  the  cause  of  orthodoxy. 
The  advocacy  on  the  part  of  the  theosophists  of  the  revival  of 
the  past,  and  their  seeing  in  such  a  revival  the  sole  panacea  of 
communal  ills,  whether  real  or  imaginary,  their  readiness  to 
allege  religious  sanction  for  the  time-hallowed  customs,  matched 
with  their  zeal  for  ritual,  and  their  eagerness  to  vindicate  the 
sacred  ceremonies  by  giving  strained  allegorical  interpretations  to 
explain  them,  win  for  them  the  applause  of  the  orthodox  party, 
who  now  cast  in  their  lot  with  them.  Inasmuch  as  the  Parsi 
theosophists  declare  that  they  are  working  to  bring  out  the 
youth  of  the  community  from  the  trough  of  materialism,  and 
endeavouring  to  defend  Zoroastrianism-  against  innovations  of 
the  reformers,  they  are  regarded  as  the  pillars  of  faith  and  the 
guardians  of  the  edifice  of  ceremonialism. 

The  average  Parsi  theosophist  is  a  latitudinarian.  He  goes 
to  the  extent  of  adopting  an  outward  compliance  with  the  religious 
practices,  which  do  not  form  part  of  his  own  daily  life,  on  the 
ground  that  he  does  not  need  them  as  having  already  reached 
a  higher  plane  than  his  neighbours,  and  as  having  ascended  the 
upper  rungs  of  the  ladder  in  the  spiritual  evolution  which  they 
have  not  yet  attained. 

It  is  something  of  a  paradox  to  find  that  these  champions 
of  orthodoxy  should  declare  that  a  certain  Hindu  gentleman  of 
Madras  was  in  one  of  his  previous  births  the  father  of  Zoroaster, 
and  should  be  devoutly  busy  at  present  in  making  preparations 
for  the  advent  of  a  new  prophet,  incarnate  in  a  Madrasi  Hindu 
youth,  alleged  to  have  been  in  one  of  his  past  births  Maidyomah, 
the  Iranian  prophet's  cousin  and  first  disciple.  Could  the  great 
Sasanian  Church  have  called  a  Parsi  theosophist  holding  such 
views  an  orthodox  Zoroastrian?  It  would  have  sooner  called 
him  a  Vedantist  or  a  Buddhist.  There  can  be  no  manner  of 
doubt  that  it  would  have  called  him  a  heretic. 

Avestan  prayers,  however  unintelligible,  are  declared  the 
most  efficacious  owing  to  their  occult  significance.  We  have 
already  seen  the  arguments  advanced  by  the  reformers  against 
addressing  to  God  prayers  in  a  language  unintelligible  to  the 


362  PARSI  THEOSOPHISTS 

suppliant,  and  we  have  noted  the  discussion  that  followed.  We 
now  need  only  notice  the  part  that  the  theosophists  have  taken 
in  the  controversy.  The  syllables  composed  in  the  Avestan 
texts,  they  aver,  are  so  mysteriously  adjusted  to  each  other  in 
the  prayers,  that  they  produce  vibrations  on  the  ethereal  plane, 
when  pronounced.  The  potency  of  such  rhythmical  sound  is  so 
great  that,  like  every  good  thought  that  flashes  out  with  strong 
occult  force  and  sends  forth  a  good  '  elemental,'  it  creates  forms 
in  the  ethereal  world,  attracts  good  '  elementals,'  and  repels  evil 
ones.  Every  single  sentence  conveys  an  occult  meaning,  and  the 
prayers  composed  in  the  celestial  tongue  of  the  prophet  and  other 
seers  have  an  unspeakable  efficacy  conducing  to  the  welfare  of 
the  individual  concerned,  but  their  renderings  into  any  modem 
vernacular  would  make  them  totally  ineffectual  as  prayers. 

An  evil  magptietic  aura,  or  malign  halo,  believed  to  radiate 
from  a  woman  during  the  time  of  menses,  hence  her  isolation 
most  essential.  The  orthodox  had  zealously  maintained  that 
woman  during  her  periods  carried  with  her  spiritual  contagion 
wherever  she  went.  The  theosophists  came  to  the  help  of  the 
staunch  followers  of  the  ancient  texts  to  show  that  this  does 
happen.  They  say  that  the  scriptures  speak  in  express  terms 
of  the  Kingly  and  Aryan  Glory,  which  scholars  in  general  take 
to  mean  the  symbolic  aggregate  of  the  royal  and  national  great- 
ness of  Iran.  This  glory,  it  is  claimed,  in  the  case  of  an  in- 
dividual, is  his  aura,  and  every  human  being  is  surrounded  by  it. 
Any  one  who  has  developed  his  inherent  clairvoyant  powers  can 
see  other  people's  auras,  and  from  their  white  or  black  hue,  grey 
or  yellow  colour,  can  discern  where  the  individual  stands  in  the 
realm  of  spiritual  progress.  Every  individual's  aura  influences 
those  of  all  others  with  whom  he  comes  in  contact,  and  is  in  turn 
affected  through  theirs.  The  aura  of  a  woman  in  her  menses, 
according  to  such  a  view,  is  spiritually  diseased,  and  a  person 
gifted  with  clairvoyant  vision  can  detect  evil  intelligences  clus- 
tered about  her,  equally  ready  to  pounce  upon  those  near  her  and 
cause  havoc  to  their  spiritual  growth.  It  was  for  this  reason 
that  the  elders  had  wisely  legislated  absolute  quiet  for  isolating 
woman  during  her  menses,  and  it  is  the  pious  duty  of  every 
faithful  believer  to  observe  the  rules  most  scrupulously. 

Occult  power,  according  to  Parsi  theosophic  view, 
emanates  from  consecrated  urine  of  cattle.    The  orthodox  had 


PARSI  THEOSOPHISTS  363 

said  that  it  was  possible  to  chase  away  the  wicked  druj  from 
man  by  rubbing  over  the  body  the  purified  fluid  obtained  from 
the  urine  of  cattle  and  that  unspeakable  spiritual  good  resulted 
from  drinking  this  extract,  consecrated  by  holy  spells,  on  solemn 
occasions.  The  theosophists  now  add  that  the  sanctified  liquid 
possesses  mysterious  qualities,  and  that  the  ritual  invests  it  with 
supersensuous   occult  powers. 

Zoroastrianism  in  the  light  of  theosophy.  These  followers 
of  an  eclectic  philosophy,  and  interpreters  of  the  divine  scriptures 
through  a  claimed  knowledge  of  occult  and  hidden  meanings, 
apply  the  theosophic  principles  of  explanation  to  the  teachings 
of  Zoroaster,  and  adapt  them  to  the  Zoroastrian  theology.  Such 
an  interpretation,  however,  leads  them  to  credit  the  religion  of 
Zoroaster  with  ideas  that  in  no  period  of  its  religious  history 
were  ever  included  in  its  sphere,  and  which,  we  venture  to  say, 
would  have  sent  a  Tansar  or  an  Adarbad  raving  with  madness. 

When  these  theosophic  interpreters  of  Zoroastrianism  are 
reminded  that  the  thoughts  they  claim  to  read  in  the  canonical 
Zoroastrian  works  are  not  there,  they  argue  with  a  doubtful  his- 
torical perspective  that  if  we  do  not  meet  them  in  the  plain 
words,  in  the  authentic  texts,  it  is  because  the  twenty-one  Nasks 
of  the  prophet  have  not  come  down  to  us.  It  is  wide  of  the 
mark  to  assume  in  this  particular  connection  that  if  the  bulk  of 
the  Zoroastrian  canon  had  not  been  irrevocably  lost  to  us.  we 
should  undoubtedly  have  found  such  doctrines  to  be  indissolubly 
associated  with  the  cardinal  texts  of  the  Zoroastrian  faith.  Every 
Iranian  student  knows  that  the  historical  sources  and  records  of 
the  teachings  of  the  prophet  that  were  in  vogue  at  any  particular 
period  of  Zoroastrian  history  have  not  perished  altogether. 
Something  of  every  period,  whether  the  Gathic,  Avestan,  Pahlavi, 
or  the  later  periods,  has  fortunately  survived  the  vandalism  of 
the  conquering  hordes  and  the  ravages  of  time,  and  consequently 
has  come  down  to  the  present  day.  For  instance,  in  the  con- 
troversy regarding  the  rebirth  theory,  to  which  we  shall  advert 
below,  the  theosophic  interpreters,  having  recourse  to  similar 
arguments,  state  that  we  should  have  found  the  theory  of  trans- 
migration of  souls  taught  in  the  Zoroastrian  works,  if  these  had 
reached  us  intact.  It  might  be  pointed  out,  however,  that  the 
fragmentary  works  of  all  periods  of  Zoroastrian  history  have 
come  down  to  us;  they  contain  the  authentic  teachings  on  the 


364  PARSI  THEOSOPHISTS 

life  after  death,  but  they  all  persistently  and  systematically 
speak  of  only  one  bodily  life  on  the  earth,  and  never  once  suggest 
the  theory  of  rebirth. 

Zrvan  Akarana  as  an  impersonal  God  in  the  theosophic 
light.  The  theosophists  attempt  a  readjustment  of  the  Zoro- 
astrian  doctrine  of  a  personal  God,  or  rather  in  accordance  with 
their  theory  of  an  impersonal  God.  Personality,  they  allege, 
implies  limitation  and  is  a  characteristic  of  the  finite.  A  personal 
God  means  that  the  godhead  is  a  limited  God,  and  therefore  an 
incomplete  God.  In  Zrvan  Akarana,  or  Boundless  Time,  the 
Parsi  theosophists  see  this  impersonal  neuter  being  of  whom 
nothing  can  be  predicated.  This  supposititious  being  is  the  root- 
less root  from  which,  we  are  told,  issues  Ormazd.  Ahriman  is 
but  Ormazd's  manifested  shadow.  Zrvan  Akarana,  the  primeval 
impersonal  principle,  according  to  their  interpretation,  is  like  a 
central  fire  from  which  all  creation  has  emanated.  The  individual 
is  only  a  vital  spark,  and  his  final  resting-place  is  in  it.  Pas- 
sionately loving  the  light,  the  moth  finally  immolates  itself  in 
the  flame;  in  like  manner  the  individual  has  to  throw  off  the 
illusory  shackles  of  personality  and  be  merged  in  the  Universal, 
the  One.  This  doctrine  is  certainly  not  Zoroastrian,  because 
through  the  whole  history  of  the  religion  individuality  is  not  an 
illusion.  It  is  ever  a  stem  fact.  Personality  is  not  an  imperfec- 
tion, but  it  is  the  highest  expression  of  life,  that  ultimately  strives 
for  the  divine.  Not  the  losing  of  individuality  and  the  loss  of  the 
personal  self,  and  not  the  weakening  of  personality,  but  the 
gaining  and  strengthening  of  it,  is  the  Zoroastrian  ideal.  This 
has  been  the  truth  taught  by  Zoroastrianism  in  the  striving  for 
the  highest  aims  comprehensible  to  mankind  from  the  remotest 
antiquity. 

Zrvan  is  extolled  above  Ormazd,  who  is  still  ranked  by  them 
as  a  mere  manifestation  of  Time.  The  one  is  elevated  by  de- 
basing the  other.  The  personal  God  who  can  be  loved  and  feared, 
who  responds  to  the  gentle  aspirations  of  the  human  heart,  is 
dethroned  to  make  room  for  a  monistic  principle  that  may  answer 
the  stern  canons  of  cold  intellectualism,  but  which  evaporates  into 
an  untliinkable  abstraction  and  mercilessly  leaves  its  hapless 
votaries  without  a  word  of  solace  or  hope.  Affection,  love,  and 
devotion  can  centre  about  some  personality  only.  We  find  in 
the    authoritative    teachings    of    the    Zoroastrian    Church    that 


PARSI  THEOSOPHISTS  365 

Ormazd  knows  no  peer,  and  he  always  sits  supreme  at  the  head 
of  the  divine  hierarchy. 

These  modern  votaries  of  Zrvan  are,  however,  not  to  be  con- 
founded with  the  Zarvanite  sect  of  old,  which  looked  to  Zrvan 
Akarana  as  a  personality  as  much  defined  as  Ormazd.  We  have 
already  seen  that,  in  postulating  impersonated  Time  as  the  origi- 
nator of  Ormazd  and  Ahriman,  the  sect  aimed  at  supplanting 
Zoroastrian  dualism  by  monotheism,  in  order  to  save  their  religion 
from  the  stigma  of  dualism.  Not  so  the  theosophists,  who  graft 
this  new  feature  on  the  pure  teachings  of  Zoroaster.  They  do 
not  personify  Time,  but  reckon  this  abstract  principle  of  Time 
as  higher  than  Ormazd  himself,  because,  in  common  with  all 
mystic  schools,  they  hold  the  idea  of  an  impersonal  God  as  the 
highest  category  of  philosophical  thought. 

Zoroastrianism  declared  by  the  theosophic  claim  to  be  in- 
complete without  the  doctrine  of  transmigration  of  souls. 
From  first  to  last  the  religion  of  ancient  Iran  shows  no  sign  of 
this  theory  of  rebirth.  But  this  dogma  occupies  a  pre-eminent 
place  among  the  theosophists,  being,  in  fact,  one  of  the  most 
conspicuous  characteristics  of  their  doctrines.  To  teach  man  to 
attain  liberation  from  the  bondage  of  rebirth  is  the  ultimate  aim 
of  their  ethics.  It  is  not  regarded  by  the  theosophists  as  one  of 
the  many  solutions  put  forward  by  the  human  mind  to  solve  the 
mysteries  of  the  life  after  death,  but  as  the  only  rational  ex- 
planation that  satisfies  our  instinct  of  justice,  and  the  only  solu- 
tion of  the  anomalies  in  this  world.  They  persuade  themselves 
that  the  theory  is  fast  becoming  a  recognized  truth  in  the  West, 
and  that,  at  no  distant  date,  it  will  be  hailed  as  an  inexorable 
law  of  nature  proved  with  scientific  certitude.  With  a  view  to 
investing  their  statements  with  scriptural  authority  they  tear  one 
■or  two  passages  from  their  context,  and  basing  their  arguments 
on  these,  they  declare  that  they  have  unearthed  the  theory  from 
the  labyrinth  of  Zoroastrianism.  When  the  Dasturs  and  other 
Parsi  scholars  assert,  in  accord  with  all  Iranian  scholars  of  the 
West,  that  in  no  period  of  the  religious  history  of  Iran  is 
metempsychosis  ever  hinted  at  in  the  remotest  form,  and  that 
the  passages  referred  to  have  no  bearing  upon  the  question,  they 
retort  with  a  strange  perversity  that  the  scholarship  of  the 
scholars  must  be  at  fault,  for  so  great  a  master  as  Zoroaster 
simply  could  not  fail  to  have  taught  this  fundamental  truth.     If 


366  PARSI  THEOSOPHISTS 

facts  do  not  square  with  their  theories,  so  much  the  worse  for 
the  facts. 

But  this  is  not  all.  Enthused  by  a  zeal  for  the  theory,  they  go 
a  step  further  and  allege  that  Zoroaster  himself  is  an  Amshaspand 
incarnate.  This  is  contrary  to  the  spirit  of  Zoroastrianism.  The 
sacred  books  speak  of  the  prophet  as  the  greatest  of  the  mortals, 
the  most  brilliant  among  men,  even  as  the  star  Tishtar  is  among 
the  infinite  stars,^  and  as  the  noblest  soul  whose  ideal  life  is 
a  leaven  of  righteousness  to  humanity.  He  is  the  highest  and 
the  greatest  ideal  of  human  perfection,  the  very  embodiment  of 
piety.  The  Gathas  give  a  distinctly  visualized  image  of  the 
personality  of  Zoroaster.  His  life  is  surrounded  by  a  nimbus  of 
miracles  in  the  later  period,  and  most  extravagant  legends  are 
woven  about  his  personality,  but  after  all  that  the  human 
language  can  sing  in  his  praise,  he  is  simply  a  man,  and  not  an 
archangel  incarnate.  So  was  he  during  life,  and  so  he  is  after 
death.  In  no  period  of  its  history  does  Zoroastrianism 
apotheosize  its  prophet. 

How  the  movement  affects  the  communal  character.  It  is 
far  too  early  to  predict  in  what  direction  the  esoteric  movement 
is  causing  the  community  to  drift.  But  the  growing  fondness 
for  occult  mystery,  the  strong  passion  for  the  marvellous  and 
pursuit  after  the  visionary  and  impracticable,  the  leaning  towards 
the  ascetic  virtues,  do  not  augur  well  for  the  community.  They 
threaten  to  sap  the  active  Zoroastrian  virtues  that  have  raised 
the  Parsis  to  their  present  eminent  position,  and  to  replace  them 
by  a  flabby  kind  of  morality.  It  is  a  bad  theory  of  life  that  dis- 
courages the  robust  good  sense  of  the  community  and  reduces 
its  energy  by  weakening  its  will-power.  The  disappearance  of 
the  communal  character  would  in  the  end  be  disastrous.  When 
the  whole  Indian  world  is  in  the  throes  of  a  stupendous  intel- 
lectual upheaval,  it  is  sad  to  witness  a  class  of  enlightened 
youths  cultivating  credulity  and  working  its  mind  into  a  morbid 
state  by  which  it  loses  its  grip  of  common  sense  and  deceives 
itself  with  fond  delusions. 

•  Yt.  8.  44. 


CHAPTER  XLVI 

ZOROASTRIANISM    CEASES   TO   BE   A   MISSIONARY 

RELIGION 

The  causes  that  have  led  the  preponderating  number  of 
the  community  to  decide  against  any  kind  of  proselytizing. 
The  era  of  unprecedented  prosperity  of  the  Parsis  during  the 
last  century  has  intensified  the  more  their  spirit  of  communal 
exclusiveness.  Zoroastrianism  has  come  to  be  regarded,  more 
and  more,  as  the  communal  heritage,  and  overwhelming  num- 
bers of  the  Parsis  have  determined  to  make  it  exclusively  their 
own.  It  is  their  cherished  possession,  and  none  outside  their 
fold  shall  share  it.  Theirs  is  a  close  corporation.  One  has  to 
be  born  a  Zoroastrian,  he  cannot  become  one. 

Though  no  serious  attempt  has  ever  been  made  by  the 
Parsis  of  India  to  organize  a  proselytizing  movement  with  the 
sole  object  of  propagating  their  faith,  worldly  motives  on  the 
part  of  some  members  of  the  community  have  from  time  to  time 
prompted  them  to  open  the  question  during  the  last  century. 
Among  such  motives  has  been  the  desire  of  a  matrimonial  alliance 
with  an  alien  woman ;  the  wish  to  have  the  children  born  of  such 
union  invested  with  the  sacred  shirt  and  girdle;  or  again  the 
desire  to  include  in  the  faith  those  children  born  of  the  Zoro- 
astrian fathers  by  illegitimate  intercourse  with  non-Zoroastrian 
mistresses.  So  bitter  have  been  the  controversies  thus  arising 
that  they  have  stopped  just  short  of  physical  violence.  The 
collective  conscience  of  the  community  has  recently  declared  that 
it  shall  not  legalize  the  marital  connection  with  alien  women, 
it  shall  not  consecrate  the  investiture  with  the  visible  emblem  of 
their  faith  of  the  children  of  alien  mothers,  it  shall  not  legitimatize 
the  conversion  of  illegitimate  children,  and  for  the  matter  of 
that  it  shall  have  nothing  to  do  with  proselytizing  at  all. 

How  the  decision  of  the  Parsis  not  to  accept  any  converts 
affects  the  future  of  the  community.  Of  all  the  ancient  prophets 
of  the  great  religions  of  the  world,  Zoroaster  has  the  smallest  fol- 

367 


368  CEASES  TO  BE  A  MISSIONARY  RELIGION 

lowing  at  the  present  day.  Only  one  hundred  thousand  souls,  at 
the  most,  acknowledge  him  as  their  prophet.  If  Zoroastrianism 
is  to  live  in  this  world  as  a  living  faith,  it  must  have  sufficient 
numbers  in  its  fold  to  keep  up  its  vitality.  When  such  a  small 
community  deliberately  resolves  to  erect  a  huge  barrier  against 
all  outsiders,  it  raises  various  problems  of  great  concern  and 
grave  anxiety  for  its  future.  It  falls  in  the  domain  of  the  social 
sphere  to  consider  these  problems  that  demand  solution  from  all 
thinking  members  of  the  community.  In  this  present  work  of 
religious  study,  we  shall  only  passingly  refer  in  the  next  para- 
graph to  some  of  these  vital  questions  that  confront  us,  leaving 
their  discussion  for  another  volume  chiefly  devoted  to  the  treat- 
ment of  the  social  and  economic  problems  of  the  community, 
which  I  hope  to  publish  at  some  future  time. 

The  growing  cost  of  living,  the  increasing  inclination  in  the 
community  for  higher  standard  of  living,  the  custom  of  dowery, 
and  similar  causes,  contribute  towards  the  fall  in  the  propor- 
tion of  marriages  among  persons  of  marriageable  age.  The 
disinclination  to  marriage  steadily  increases.  Both  bachelors 
and  spinsters  try  to  put  off  marrying  till  very  late  in  life.  The 
consequence  is  fewer  children.  Besides,  there  is  a  growing  un- 
willingness among  the  married  couples  of  the  upper  and  middle 
classes  to  assume  parental  responsibility.  The  ratio  of  births  to 
wives  of  potential  ages  shows  a  decline.  Modern  civilization  is 
wedded  to  an  insatiable  hunger  for  comfort,  and  an  inordinate 
devotion  to  luxury.  Children  come  to  be  regarded  as  a  source 
of  hindrance  to  the  enjoyment  of  the  social  amenities  of  life  on 
the  part  of  their  parents.  Hence  the  restriction  on  their  pro- 
duction. The  mode  of  living  of  the  Parsis  as  taught  by  Zoro- 
astrianism, which  enjoins  bodily  cleanness  and  hygienic  prin- 
ciples as  religious  duties,  contributes  greatly  towards  the  preser- 
vation of  young  lives,  and  keeps  infant  mortality  at  its  lowest. 
But  for  all  that,  the  decline  in  the  birth-rate  in  a  community  of 
about  a  hundred  thousand  souls  that  stubbornly  repels  all  prose- 
lytes and  closes  its  doors  against  all  aliens  threatens  its  very 
existence. 


CHAPTER  XLVII 

CONCLUSION 

And  now  we  have  reached  the  completion  of  our  study  down 
to  the  present  day.  We  have  traced  the  gradual  development  of 
the  religion  of  Zarathushtra  during  the  various  periods  of  its 
history.  Nearly  three  thousand  years  have  elapsed  since  the 
great  prophet  first  gave  the  message  of  Mazda  to  the  people 
of  Iran.  Many  millions  of  human  souls  have  lived  a  happy 
life  and  died  a  peaceful  death  under  the  shadow  of  the  protect- 
ing wings  of  the  faith.  Zarathushtra's  immortal  triad  of  '  good 
thoughts,  good  words,  and  good  deeds  '  has  kindled  the  religious 
zeal,  intensified  the  desire,  ennobled  the  thoughts,  illumined  the 
minds,  and  warmed  the  hearts  of  the  countless  numbers  of  his 
followers.  Throughout  its  history  Zoroastrianism  has  seen  its 
bright  and  dark  days,  accompanied  by  the  rise  and  fall  of  the 
political  power  of  its  adherents.  During  these  ages,  great  and 
mighty  kings,  in  whom  was  concentrated  the  temporal  power  of 
Persia,  have  ruled  over  Iran.  Yet  they  are  no  more.  But  the 
one  personality  in  whom  was  sanctified  the  spiritual  power,  the 
everlastingly  greater  than  kings,  has  ruled  over  the  hearts  of  men 
in  all  periods  of  the  nation's  history  and  will  ever  continue  to 
rule  so  in  the  ages  to  come.  Zarathushtra,  the  chosen  of  Ahura 
Mazda,  does  not  belong  to  any  single  period  and  particular  people, 
but  to  all  ages  and  to  all  peoples.  He  is  unchanging.  His  re- 
ligion it  was  that  inspired  the  Iranian  nation  with  the  loftiest  of 
ideals  when  Iran  was  at  the  zenith  of  her  power.  His  ever 
optimistic  teachings  and  the  ever  cheerful  spirit  of  his  sublime 
doctrines  saved  its  remnants  from  falling  into  the  slough  of 
pessimism  and  gloom,  twelve  centuries  ago,  when  the  Zoro- 
astrian  community  stood  appalled  by  the  national  catastrophe 
that  sounded  the  death-knell  of  their  empire.  With  the  down- 
fall of  the  empire  the  hope  of  regaining  power  had  disappeared 
forever.  They  could  never  see  visions  of  its  restoration.  His- 
tory has   recorded  this  one   and  unique  pathetic  instance  of   a 

369 


370  CONCLUSION 

great  nation  of  millions  being  reduced  to  a  small  community  of 
a  hundred  thousand  souls  all  told,  still  true  to  its  ancient  faith. 
Everything  that  was  nearest  and  dearest  to  them  in  the  father- 
land was  gone.  Zarathushtra  remained  their  only  hope,  and 
with  his  religion  as  the  only  cherished  heritage,  the  Parsi  exiles 
sought  an  asylum  in  India.  Twelve  centuries  have  dragged 
their  weary  course  since  they  first  landed  on  this  the  land  of 
their  hope  and  began  their  life  anew.  Rulers  of  nations  they 
have  not  become,  but  they  have  proved  themselves  to  be  the  true 
bearers  of  the  great  name  and  fame  of  their  illustrious  forbears. 
The  pages  of  their  national  history  are  still  thrilling  with  the 
noble  deeds  of  the  ancient  Iranians,  and  their  dutiful  descendants 
have  faithfully  reflected  their  past  national  glory  in  the  mirror 
of  their  small  community.  Zoroastrian  virtues  have  made  the 
modern  Parsis  great.  The  community  has  secured  a  pioneer 
place  in  the  social,  intellectual,  and  industrial  life  of  the  teeming 
millions  of  India.  They  have  amassed  vast  fortunes  and  have 
given  away  equally  vast  sums  for  philanthropic  purposes  without 
distinction  of  caste,  color,  or  creed.  An  individual  member 
among  the  Parsis  to-day  is  a  better  cared-for  unit  than  one 
in  any  society.  The  Parsis  yearly  contribute  for  his  relief  at  a 
rate  which  no  people  in  the  world  does  for  its  individual  mem- 
ber. The  virtue  of  charity  has  been  built  into  the  very  com- 
munal fibre,  and  is  woven  into  the  tissues  of  every  individual's 
being.  A  religion  that  produces  such  results  in  the  practical  life 
of  a  community  well  deserves  the  epithet  '  excellent,'  which  the 
Mazda-worshipping  religion  of  Zarathushtra  is  given  in  the 
Confession  of  Faith. 

With  sublime  confidence  Zarathushtra  foretold  to  the  Evil 
Spirit  that  his  religion  will  ever  live  and  his  followers  will  do 
battle  with  the  forces  of  evil  up  to  the  end  of  the  world. ^  His 
noble  faith  has  weathered  the  heaviest  of  storms  and  survived 
them ;  and  a  religion  which  stood  these  trials  in  the  past  will  stand 
any  trial  in  the  future.  Zoroastrianism  will  live  by  its  eternal 
verities  of  the  belief  in  the  personality  of  Ormazd,  an  abiding 
faith  in  the  triad  of  good  thoughts,  good  words,  and  good  deeds, 
the  inexorable  law  of  righteousness,  the  reward  and  retribution 
in  the  life  hereafter,  the  progress  of  the  world  towards  perfection, 
and   the  ultimate   triumph   of   the  good   over   evil   through   the 

*Vd.  19.  5. 


CONCLUSION  371 

coming  of  the  Kingdom  of  Ormazd  with  the  co-operation  of  man. 
These  are  the  truest  and  the  greatest  realities  in  life.  They  are 
valid  for  all  times.  They  constitute  the  lasting  element  of  Zoro- 
astrianism.  In  the  midst  of  the  accretions  that  have  gathered 
round  it  during  the  long  period  of  its  life,  these  immortal  truths 
have  remained  substantially  unchanged,  and  by  them  Zoroastrian- 
ism  will  live  for  all  time.  Dogmas  and  rituals  are  based  upon 
the  needs  of  the  times,  and  as  such  they  are  subject  to  the 
natural  laws  of  growth  and  decay.  They  have  their  place  in  the 
spiritual  development  of  man.  They  are  the  accompaniments  of 
religion,  but  not  religion  itself.  Man  may  fall  away  from  dogmas 
and  from  rituals,  and  yet  he  may  remain  religious.  Righteous- 
ness rests  on  the  individual's  piety,  and  not  on  a  scrupulous 
observance  of  ceremonials,  or  a  practice  of  elaborate  lustrations. 
Let  the  Parsi  individually,  and  his  community  collectively,  abide 
steadfast  in  the  path  of  righteousness,  and  they  will  be  practising 
true  Zoroastrianism.  In  the  fret  and  fever  of  modem  civilization, 
which  renders  man  exceedingly  sensitive  to  suffering,  and  lets 
loose  on  him  the  demons  of  restlessness  and  discontent,  Zara- 
thushtra's  religion  is  the  best  sedative  for  himi  to-day.  So  will 
it  be  in  all  social  unrests,  economic  crises,  and  religious  upheavals 
of  the  future.  Zarathushtra  has  been  the  hope  of  the  Parsis  in 
the  past.    So  is  he  now,  and  so  will  he  be  forever. 


INDEX 


INDEX 


Abadian,  a  sect,  312 

Abbasids,    193,   299 

Abode  of  Praise,  see  Garonmana 

Achaemenian  kings,  68,  69 

devout    worshippers    of    Mazda, 

82,   83 
statues    of    divinities    erected    by 

the,  81 
their   religion,   "/T,,  74 
their     tolerance     towrards     other 
faiths,  7Z 
achishta   aim,   worst  existence,    59, 

180 
Achishta   Manah,   Worst   Mind,   50 
achishtahya      demana      manangho, 
abode  of   the   worst   existence, 

59 

Adarbad,    composed    Pazand    peni- 
tential prayer,  196 
submitted  to  an   ordeal,   192,   193 
worked  for  the  revival  of  Zoro- 
astrianism,    192,   198 

Aeshma    (Phi.   Eshm),  52,   53,   170, 
266,  267 

Afrasiab,  see  Franrasyan 

Agathias,  191 

Aghashi,    172 

Aghrerat,  288 

Agni,    137 

agnosticism,  333 

agriculture,  praise  of,  16 

Ahriman,   see   Angra   Mainyu 

Ahuna    Vairya,    74,    117,    159,    161, 

173 
ahura,  applied  to  rulers,  6 

designation   of    the    divinities,    6, 

304 
Ahura    Mazda    (Old    Pers.    Aura- 
mazda.    Phi.    Ormazd),    19-25, 

82-86,    220-225 

Ahurani,   141 

Aighash,  268 

Airyaman,    119 

Airyaman  Ishya,  119,   167,  173,   182 

Airyana  Vaejah  (Phi.  Iranvej),  81, 

273,  341 
Aka    Manah    (Phi.    Akoman),    50, 

163,  261,  262 
Akatasha  (Phi.  Akatash),  172,  268 


Akhshiyan,  a  sect,  312 

Akhshti,    115 

Akhtya,  75 

Akkad,    73 

Akoman,  see  Aka  Manah 

Alarian,   a   sect,   312 

Albania,     Zoroastrian     propaganda 

in,  199 
Alexander  the  Great,  consigned  the 

Zoroastrian    scriptures    to    the 

flames,   184 
Amadunians,    198 
Amardad,  see  Ameretat 
Amasis,  136 
Ambrosia,   179,  278 
Ameretat    (Phi.    Amardad),    39-41, 

95,  235 
Amesha     Spentas     (Phi.     Amshas- 

pands),  26-41,  87-95,  226-235 
Anaghra    Raochah,    127,    128,    178, 

276,  277 
anaghra    temah,    endless    darkness, 

180 
Anahita,  see  Ardvi  Sura  Anahita 
anathema,   power  of,    118 
ancestor-worship,  see  Fravashis 
angels,  see  Yazatas 
Angra  Mainyu  (Phi.  Ahriman),  48, 

157-159,  254-260,  337,  338 
Anquetil  du  Perron,  302,  321,  322 
Anrak  Menu,  254 
anthropomorphism,  20 
Antiochus  I,  pays  homage  to  Iran- 
ian divinities,  187 
Apam  Napat,  141 
Apaosha    (Phi.    Aposh).    130,    131, 

170,   171,  267 
Apollo,  74 

Apostasy,  see  Heresies 
Arashk,  268 
Arast,   268 

archangels,  see  Amesha  Spentas 
Ardashir,  rejuvenated  Zoroastrian- 

ism  191,   199 
Ardavan,     last     of     the     Parthian 

kings,    191 
Ardvi  Sura  Anahita,  137-140 
Areimanios,  see  Angra  Mainyu 
Arejat-aspa    (Phi.   Arjasp),   incited 
by   Eshm   to   invade    Iran,    266 
invoked  Ardvi  Sura  Anahita,  I39 


375 


376 


INDEX 


Arezura   (Phi.  Arezur),  165,  260 
Aristotle,    156,    173,   314 
Aritoxenus,  156 
Armaiti,  see  Spenta  Armaiti 
Armenia,    Zoroastrian    propaganda 

in,  75,   185,    187,    198,   199 
Arrian,  69 
Arsaces,  185 
Arshtat,  112 
arta  or  areta,  30 
Artabanus,   185 
Artaxerxes   II    (Mnemon),   erected 

statues  to  Anahita,  81,  138 
invoked    Mithra,    104 
Artaxerxes    III    (Ochus),    ascribes 

his  sovereignty  to  Auramazda, 

83 
invoked  Mithra,  104 
Arzah,  238 
asceticism,  of  the  Parsi  mystics  of 

the    seventeenth    century,    316, 

317 
Zoroastrian   aversion   to,    15-17 

Asha  Vahishta   (Phi.  Artavahisht), 
30-36,  90-93,  231,  232 

ashahya  gaetha,  world  of  righteous- 
ness, 57 

ashavan,  righteous,  31,  22i,  34 

Ashavazd,  288 

asheniaogha,     one     who     destroys 
righteousness,    166 

Ashi   Vanghuhi,  43,  44,    122-124 

Ashvins,    167 

Asia   Minor,   Mithra's  cult  in,   186, 

187 

Asman,  128 

asna  khratu,  innate  wisdom,  89 

Assara    Mazas,    19 

Assurbanipal,   19 

Astovidhotu   (Phi.  Astovidad),  168, 

265,  266 
astvant,  corporeal,  54,  175 
Astvatereta,    182 
Astyages,  68 
Asuras,  304 
Atar,   42,   43,    134-137 
Athena,  Trojan,  98 
athravan,  the  fire-priest,  7 

the    Zoroastrian    priesthood,    67- 

71 
Athwya,  7,  120 
aura,  magnetic,  362 
Aurvasara,   133 
ayadand,       places       of       worship, 

134 
Az,  268 

Azar  Kaivan,  314,  315 
Azhi  Dahaka  (Phi.  Zohak), 

Angra   Mainyu    wished   to    make 

him   immortal,  257 
called  a  druj,  164 


created    for    the    destruction    of 

the  world,    155,    175,    184 
ruled  tyrannically  over  Iran,  267 
sacrificed   unto   Ardvi    Sura,    139 
sacrificed  unto  Vayu,  133 
will  be  killed  by  Kersasp  at  the 

Renovation,  239 
will  break  loose  from  the  bonds 
at  the  Renovation,  288 
Azi,  171 


B 

Babylon,   72,   81 

Bactrians,  67,  81 

Bagabigna,  153 

Bagabukhsha,  153 

Bagayadi,  153 

Bagdad,    193 

Baghas   (Old  Pers.  Bagas),  6,  153, 

154 
Bahman,   see  Vohu   Manah 
Bahram,    fire,    temples    consecrated 

to,  236 
Bahram  I,  put  Mani  to  death,  210 
Baresman    (Phi.   Barsam),  7 
Bartholomae  Ch.,  58 
Behistan,  112,  22>7 
Bel,  75 
Bendva,  38 
benediction,   power   of,   personified, 

118 
Berosus,  81,   138 
Best  Existence,  178,  276 
Biruni,  al-,  210,  211,  214,  216,  219, 

300 
Bodleian    Library,    Iranian    manu- 
scripts in  the,  321 
body,  garment  of  the  soul,  269,  270 
purity  of,  33,  93,  214 
self-mortification  of,  211,  317 
Boghaz-keui   tablets,   167 
Book  of  Life,  58,  273 
Bridge  of  Judgment,  see  Chinvat 
British,  Parsi  prosperity  begins  with 

the  advent  of,   331 
Buidhi,    170 

Buiti   (Phi.  But),  170,  268 
Buji,    172 

Burzin  Mihr,  fire,  42 
Bushyansta     (Phi.    Bushasp),     169, 
170,  268 


Cambyses,    burns     the    corpse    of 

Amasis,  136 
on  the  power  of  Fate,  154 
orders  purification  of  the  temple 

of  Neit,  73 


INDEX 


377 


Cappadocia,    Zoroastrian     practices 

in,  75,. 8i,    134,    186,    187 
Cassius,  Dio,   185 
cattle,  Drvaspa,  genius  of,  125 
Vohu  Manah  guards,  29,  231 
celibacy,    advocated   by    Mani,   214, 

branded  as  a  vice  by  Zoroastrian- 

ism,    214-216 
practised  by  the  Parsi  mystics  of 

the  seventeenth  century,  316 
primal    virtue    among    the    Parsi 
theosophists,  353 
chariots   of  the   Yazatas,    102,   108, 

109,   140 
charity,   personified,   114,   115 

of  the  Parsis,  370 
charms,    309,    310 
China,  Manichaeism  in,  211 

Zoroastrian  propaganda  in,  75 
Chinvat,   57,    I77,    178,  273 
Chishmak,   268 
Chisti,   loi 
Chitra-mahan,   288 
Christian  propaganda,  in  Iran,  195, 
199-202 
among  the  Parsis  of  India,  339- 

Church,  Zoroastrian,  in  relation  to 

the  State,  74,   192 
Clement  of  Alexandria,  186 
Confession  of  Faith,  163 
contracts,   inviolability  of,   107,    108 
creatures,      noxious,      created      by 
Angra  Mainyu,  258 
virtue  to  kill,   155 
criticism,     higher,     of     the     sacred 

texts,  335,  336 
Curtius,    126,    184 
customs,    alien,    borrowed    by    the 

Parsis,  343 
Cyrus,  anointed  of  Yahweh,  73 
chosen  of  Marduk,  73 
makes  Persia  queen  of  Asia,  184 
overthrows  Astyages,  68 
restores    Jewish,    Sumerian,    and 
Akkadian  temples,  73,  200 


D 

Dabistan,   311,   312 

Dadani,    268 

Daena,     conscience,    52,     176,     177, 

272 
Daena,  religion  personified,   loi 
Daevas    (Phi.    Divs),    49,    I59-I73, 

260-268 
Daevayasnians,    Daeva-worshippers, 

163,   209 
Dahaka,   see  Azhi  Dahaka 


Dahma  Afriti,   118 

dainghu-paiti,     lord     of     countries, 

116 
daitya  gatu,  proper  place,    134 
Daiwi,    172,   268 
Damascius,    203 
Damascus,   81 
Damoish    Upamana,    118 
Darab,     teacher     of     Anquetil     du 

Perron,  302,  321 
Darius     I,     devout    worshipper    of 

Mazda,  82,  83 
exhorts     mankind     to     walk    on 

the  Path  of  Righteousness,  91 
rebuilds  temple  at  Jerusalem,  73, 

200 
rebukes    Gadatas    for    neglecting 

Apollo,  73,  74 
styled  son  of  the  Egyptian  god- 
dess Neit,  73 
Darius    III,    Alexander    sends    the 

body  of,  to  be  interred  in  the 

royal  mausoleum,  69 
last    of   the    Achaemenian    kings, 

184 
dawn,  personified,  128,  129 
Death,    life    after,    54-59,    174-180, 

269-283 
see  also  Astovidhotu 
Demavand,  288 
demon-worshippers,    163,   209 
Desatir,    311,   312 
devotion,   see  Spenta  Armaiti 
Dino,    134,   173 
Diocletian,    Mithra    recognized    by, 

187 
Diodorus,  184 
Diogenes    Laertius,    156,    157,    181, 

186 
Dispensation,    Final,    see    Renova- 
tion 
Divs,  see  Daevas 
Dizh-i   Nipisht,   184 
draonah,   wafer-bread,    98 
dregvant,  wicked   one,   50,   162 
Drivi,    172,   268 

drought,   demon   of,    see   Apaosha 
Druj,   50-52,    164-166,   262-264 
drujo    demdna,    abode    of    wicked- 
ness,  52,   59 
Drvaspa,    125 
dualism,     46-53,     IS5-I73,     247-268, 

2,2,7,   338,   340 
duraosha,  far  from  death,  17 
dushmata,    dushhukhta,    dushhvar- 

shta,    evil    thought,    evil    word, 

and    evil    deed,    179 
duzh  aim,  evil  existence.  180 
Duzhyairya    (Old   Pers.    Dushiyar; 

Turfan    manuscript    of    Mani, 

Dushyari),    172,     173 


378 


INDEX 


earth,   Armaiti   guards  the,  39,  95, 

233 

Zamyat  the   divinity  of  the,    142 
Ecbatana,  81 

education,   on   Western  lines,   331 
Egypt,   the    Magi    in,    186 
Elisaeus,   198,    I99,  203-205,   215 
Endless   Light,    127,    128,    178,   276, 

277 
Erethe,    112 
Eubulus,   186 
Eudemus,    181,   203 
Euoxus,    156 

Evil,    46-53,    155-173,    247-268 
Evil  Mind,  see  Aka  Manah 
Evil    Spirit,    see    Angra    Mainyu 
Eznik,   203-206 


fairies,    172,    I73  ,  , 

falsehood,     greatly     detested,     106, 

107 
Faridun,  see  Thraetaona 
Farohars,  see  Fravashis 
Farvardigan    festival,   244 
Farzan    Bahram,    314 
Fashioner    of    the    Universe,    see 

Geush  Tashan 
fasting,   advocated  by   Mam,  216 
condemned    by    Zoroaster,    216 
Fatalists,    205-208 

Fate,  154,  205-208  ,    ,      r 

Fire,   Atar,   consecrated   symbol   ot 
Zoroastrianism,   35 
the  divinity  of,   I34-I37 
fire-cult,  is  Indo-Iranian,  7,  42 
fire-temples,   134 
fire-worship,     repudiated     by     the 

Parsis,  339  ,  „ 

fires  consecrated  by  the  pre-Zoro- 

astrian  kings,  42 
firmament,  deified,  128 
Foy,   112 

Fradat-gadman,  288  ,  ^      . 

Franrasyan    (Phi.    Afrasiab),    An- 
gra   Mainyu    desired    to    make 
him  immortal,  257 
hides    himself    under    the    earth, 

175  T  < 

rules  tyrannically  over  Iran,  207 

sacrifices  unto  Ardvi  Sura,  6,  139 

will  not  be  given  his  body  at  the 

resurrection,    290 

Frashaoshtra,  29,  38 

Frazisht,    268 

freedom  of  the  will,   24,  253 

Friftar,   268 


Froba,  42,  193 
Fryana,    12,    74 


Gadatas,  ^z,  74 
gaethya,    terrestrial,   99 
Galatia,  186 

Gana  Menu,  see  Angra  Mainyu 
Ganj-i    Shapigan,   184 
gaomaeza  or  gomes,  309,  350 
gaoshosruta    khratu,    acquired   wis- 
dom, 89 
Garonmana    (Phi.    Garotman),    19, 

178,  179,  275-277 
Gaumata,    68 

Gaya    maretan     (Phi.    Gayomard), 
first  mortal  to  hear  the  divine 
precepts,  4,  11 
his  body  first  to  be  raised  at  the 

resurrection,  290 
primeval    man,    4,    149,    174 
started  the  work  of  the  regenera- 
tion of  the  world,  284 
taught  by  the  Izads,  236 
Gayomarthians,  301 
Georgia,     Zoroastrian     propaganda 

in,  198 
Geush  Tashan,  44,  45,  125,  126 
Geush  Urvan   (Phi.  Goshorun),  44, 

45,  125,   126,  243 
Ghashi,   172 
Gilan,  8,  103,  160 
Giv,  288 

Glory,   Aryan,    142 
Glory,  Kingly,  67,  182,  298 
Gobak-abu,  287 
Godrej,  314 

Good    Mind,   see  Vohu   Manah 
Good  Spirit,  see  Spenta  Mainyu 
Goshasp,  42 

Guardian  Spirits,  see  Fravashis 
Gujarat,   early   Parsi    settlers  plant 
their  colonies  in,  303 
Mithra's   cult   in,    187 
Parsi  ascetics  in,  318 
Gurgi,  210 
Gushtasp,   see   Vishtaspa 


H 


Hades,  156 

Hadhayosh,   292 

halo,    malign,    362 

hameshak  sut  gas,  place  of  eternal 

weal,  179 
Hamistagan,  58,  59,  178 
Haoma    (Phi.    Hom),    77,   78,    119- 

122 
Haoshyangha,  fought  with  the  de- 


INDEX 


379 


mons  and   fairies,  8,    162,    173, 

174 
reputed  founder  of  the  first  rul- 
ing dynasty  in  Iran,  4 
sacrificed    unto    Ardvi    Sura,    6, 

138 
sacrificed    unto    Ashi    Vanghuhi, 

123 
sacrificed  unto  Drvaspa,  7 
sacrificed  unto  Vayu,  6,   133 
Haosravah,  Kavi  (Phi.  Kaikhusru), 

called  an  ahura,  6 
consecrates  the  fire  Goshasp,  42 
sacrifices  unto  Ashi  Vanghuhi,  123 
will  arise  to  work  for  the  rais- 
ing of  the  dead,  288 
Haptoiringa,   132 
Har  Govind,   Guru,  318 
Hara      Berezaiti      (Alburz),      106, 

122,    131,    137,   2-7Z 
Haug,  Martin,  zy] 
Hashi,   172 
Haurvatat    (Phi.   Khurdad),   39-41, 

95,  234 
health,  genius  of,  see  Airyaman 
Heaven,  57,  58,  178,  179,  275-278 
Hell,    59,    179,    180,    278-283 
heresies,  209-219 
Herodotus,  68,  69,  81,  97,  98,   107, 

121,   127,   133,   134,  140,    155 
Hippolytus,   156 
Hirbad,   318 
Holy  Ghost,  24 

Holy  Spirit,  see  ■^penta  Mainyu 
Hormizd    IV,    199,    201 
Hoshedar,   285,    286 
Hoshedar-mah,    286 
huynata,     hukhta,     hvarshta,     good 

thoughts,  good  words,  and  good 

deeds,  31,  178 
Hushiyyar,  314,  317,  318 
Hutaosa,  12,  133 
Hvarekhshaeta     (Phi.     Khurshed), 

126,    127,   241 
Hvova   family,   138 
Hyde,  Thomas,  321 


Ibairaz,    288 

Ideas,  Platonic,  143 

immaculate    births    of   the    saviour 

prophets,  284-287 
immortality,  see  Ameretat 
Indar,  167,  264 
Indo-European   peoples,  3 
Indo-Iranians,  3-8 
Indo- Scythian     kings,     Zoroastrian 

divinities  on  the  coins  of  the, 

188 
intermediary  place,  58,  59,  179,  278 


Iranvej,   8r,   273,   341 
Isfandiyar,  Ibn,  207 
Israelites,   200 
Ithyejah,    172 
Izads,  see  Yazatas 


Jackson    A    V.  W.,  24,  25,  41,  112 

Jam-i  Kaikhusru,  314 

Jamasp,    visits   India,   302,   319 

Jamshaspian,  a  sect,  312 

Jamshid,  see  Yima 

Jasnaf,    king    of    Tabaristan,    208, 

209 
Jeh,    267,    268 
Jerusalem,  y:^ 

Judaism  in   Persia,   199-201 
Judea,  73 

Judgment,    Bridge  of,   see    Chinvat 
Judgment,    individual,    after   death, 

57,    177,   178,  272-275 
universal,  at  the  Renovation,  60, 

61,  290,   291 
Justinian,  358 

K 

Kadimis,  320 
kalma,  343 
Kama,  K.   R.,  334 
Kamak-sud,    288 
Kamak-vakhshishn,  288 
Kanheri   caves,    305 
Kans,  lake,  285 
Karapans,   71 
Kashvish,   268 
Kaswi,    172 
Kaus,   king,  see  Usa 
Kavis,  71 
Keresani,   74 

Keresaspa      (Phi.      Kersasp),     be- 
witched by   Khnanthaiti,    172 

sacrificed    unto    Ardvi    Sura,    6, 
138 

sacrificed   unto    Vayu,   6,    133 

was  refused  admission  to  heaven, 
232 

will  smite  Zohak  at  the  Renova- 
tion,  239,   288 
Khishtab,    314 
Khnanthaiti,    172,    173 
Khodaiyan,  a  sect,  312 
khrafstraghna,    70 
Khshathra  Ishtoish,  36 
Khshathra    Vairya     (Phi.    Shatra- 

var).  36,  2,7,  93,  94,  232,  233 
Khuda  Jui,   314 
Khur-chashm,   288 
Khurdad,  see  Haurvatat 
Khurshed,  see  Hvarekhshaeta 


38o 


INDEX 


Khvaniras,  287,  289 

Kingdom,       Divine,       of       Ahura 

Mazda,   see   Khshathra   Vairya 
Kingdom     of     Righteousness,     see 

Asha 
Kingdom  of  Wickedness,  see  Druj 
Kobad,   218 
Kundak,   169,  268 
Kutu,   73 


labour  and  work,  sanctified,  16 
Life,  Book  of,   58,   273 

boon  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  25 

devotional,  38,  39 

monastic,    unknown    in    Zoroas- 
trian    Persia,    15,   214 

optimistic  view  of,  16 

Zoroastrian    philosophy    of,     14- 
17,   33-35.   47,   48,   51,    52,   211- 
214 
light,  genii   of,  see  Hvarekhshaeta 

and  Mithra 
Lohrasp,   201 
Lycia,  75 
Lydia,   75,   186,    187 

M 

maga,  great,   70 
Magi,    68-71 
Magophonia,  68 
Mahabad,  311,  314 
Mahatmas  of   Tibet,  356 
Maidyomah,    361 
mainyava,  celestial,  99 
Makashefat-i   Kaivani,   314 
Mamun,  al-,  194,  299 
man,  crown  of   creation,   15 

fellow-combatant      with      Ahura 

Mazda  against  Evil,  47.  .48 
his  share  in  the  regeneration  of 
the   world,    15 
manahya,  spiritual,  54,  175 

Manes,    143 

Manichaeism,   210-218 

Manthra   Spenta,   115-118 

mantra,   spell,  343 

Maonghah,    127 

Mar  Shiman,  215 

Marduk,  73 

maretan,   mortal,    168 

marezhdika,  mercy,  94 

mashya,  man,   168,  290 

mashyoi,  290 

Masudi,   358 

Mazana   (modern  Mazandaran),  8, 
160 

Mazda,  see  Ahura  Mazda 

Mazdak,    218,    219 

Mazdaka,    19 


Mazdao(scha)    Ahuraongho,    26 

Mazdayasnians,    162 

Medes,  67,  68 

Menander    Protector,   244,   245 

menstruation,    267,    268,    349,    350, 

362 
metals,    genius    of,    see    Khshathra 

Vairya 
Mihr,  see  Mithra 
Mihr,  Narsih,  198,  204 

Milanian,   a   sect,  312 

Mirkhond,  210,  211,  219 

Misvana    Gatu,    179 

Mithra    (Phi.    Mihr),   103-111,  239, 
240 

Mithradates,    185 

Mithraism,   187 

Mitokht,   268 

monajat,  prayers,   344 

moon,   genius   of   the,    see    Maong- 
hah 

Moon   Region,  heaven   of,  276 

Moses  of  Chorene,  204 

mystic  movement,  311-318 

N 

Nabuna'id,   y^ 

Nairyosangha,    137 

Naonghaithya      (Phi.     Naonghas), 

8,    167,  265 
Naotara    family,    138 
Narashamsa,    137 
Narsih,  288 
Nasatya,   7,  8,    167 
Nasks,   books   of   the   Avesta,    163, 

194.  363 
Nasu    (Phi.    Nas),    165,    166,    268, 

341 
Nebuchadnezzar,  201 
Neit,  72, 
Nero,    185 

Neryosangh    Dhaval,    306 
Nihavand,  298 
Nirangs,   Pazand,  309 
Nisibis,  celebration  of  the  Fravar- 

digan    festival  at,   244 
Niyaz,   268 
Nizisht,    268 
Noshirvan,  latitudinarian  court  of, 

married   a  Christian   wife,  201 
put    Mazdak   to    death,    219 

Nung,  268 

Nushzad,   brought  up   a   Christian, 
201 

O 

Omanus,  image  of,  81,   187 
ordeals,  37,  192,  193,  217,  233 
Ormazd,  see  Ahura  Mazda 


INDEX 


381 


orthodoxy,  religious,  336,  337,  343- 

351 
championed   by  the   Parsi   theos- 

ophists,  361 
Oshtohad,  268 


Providence,  in  relation  to  Fate,  206 

puraithoi,   186 

Puramdhi.   124 

purity  of  body  and  mind,  33,  93 

Push,  268 

Pythagoras,    358 


Paikarian,   a  sect,   312 
pairika,  8,  172,  173 
Paitisha,    172,  268 
Paoiyo-tkaesha,  4 
Para-dhata,  4 
Parendi,    124 

Parodarsh,   103,  169 

Parsadga,   288 

Parthians,  184-188 

Parviz,  Khusru,  builds  a  Christian 
monastery,   201 

Pausanias,  134,   135,   187. 

peace,  genius  of,  see  Akhshti 

penom,  mouth-covering  white  veil, 

70,  319  ,     , 

Persepolis,    archetype    copy   of    the 
Avesta  at,  194 
statues  of  Anahita  in,  81 
Peshdadians,  311 
Peshyotan,  240,  288 
Philhellenic  princes,  185 
philological      studies      among     the 

Parsis,  360,  361 
philosophy,     eclectic,    of    the    Parsi 
theosophists,  363 
in  relation  to  religion,  356,  357 
in     relation     to     Zoroastrianism, 

.      358,  359 

Phoenix  of  Colophon,  135 
Photios,  204,  205 
Phraortes,  143 
Phrygia,   186 
Pitrs,   143 
plants,    Ameretat,    genius    of,    41, 

95,  235 
Haoma,  king  of,   122 

Pliny,    185 

Plotinus,  358 

Plutarch,  84,  96,   104,  129,  155,  150, 

181,    182,    195 
polarity,  the  law  of,  28 
Pompey,  187 
Pontus,    187 
Porphyry.  186,  223 
Pourushaspa,    sacrifices    unto    Ha- 
oma, 7,  120 
prayers,        Avestan,        controversy 
upon,  344,  345 
intercessory,  347 
theosophical  view  of,  301,  302 
priesthood,  333,  352 
proselytism,    11-13.    72-75,    190-202, 
323-325,  367,  368 


Qadisiya,  298 


Q 


R 


Radian,  312 

Ragha,  67 

rain,  genius  of,  see  Tishtrya 

Raman,  114 

Rasanstat,  112 

Rashnu  (Phi.  Rashn),  m,  240,  241 

Raspi,  293 

Rata,   114.   115 

rasishta,  most  upright,  iii 

rectitude,  personified,   112 

reform,  religious,  343-351 

reincarnation,  365,  366 

Renovation,  60-63,   181-183,  284-294 

resurrection,  289,  290 

retribution,  55-59,  280-283 

reward,  55-58,  178,  I79,  277,  278 

Rhodaspes,  185 

Righteousness,  see  Asha 

rituals,  346-348 

Roshan-chashm,  288 

rta,   30 
Rustam,  314 


sacrifice,  animal,  to  the  Yazatas, 
7,  98,  113,  121,  125,  140,  237, 
238,  355 

Saena,  75 

Saeni,   172 

Safle,  268  .       .,     ,     .      ,   ^, 

saint,  Zoroastnan  ideal  ot,  15,  93 

Sais,  136 

Sam,  244,  314     ,  r  ,,  ^ 

Samarkand,  archetype  copy  of  the 

Avesta  at,  I94 
Samradian,  a  sect,  312 
Saoshyants,   181,    182 
Sardis,  81 

Sargon,  inscriptions   of,   19 
Sarosh,    Mobad,    314 
Sasan,   192,    i97 

Satavaesa,  131,  132  ^      ^a, 

Saurva    (Phi.    Sovar).    7.    167.   264 
Savah,   238 
Sayuzhdri,    138 

sects,  203-208  ,     , 

Seistan,     Zoroastrianism     preached 

in,  75 


382 


INDEX 


Sej,   268 

Seleucids,   185,    191 
self,  development  of,  15 

discipline  of,  32 

sacrifice  of,  34 
Seno,    200 
Shahinshahis,  320 
Shahristani,    205,    301 
Shapir-abu,  286 

Shapur    I,    embraces    Manichaeism, 
210 

Shapur  II,  worked  for  the  revival 
of  the  faith,   192,  193,   ig8 

bharva,  7,  167 

Shatravar,    see    Khshathra    Vairya 

Shidabian,  a  sect,  312 

Shidrangian,  a  sect,  312 

Shikasta-i      Shaitan,      a      Pazand 
prayer,   226 

shirt  and  girdle,  sacred,  17 

Siamak,  229 

Sikandar,  see  Alexander  the  Great 

Sipasian,  312 

Siwar-i  Akalim-i  Sab'ah,  302 

sleep,    inordinate,    demon    of,    169, 

I/O 

Snavidhka,  86 

Society    for    the    Amelioration    of 

the  Zoroastrians  in  Persia,  303 
Soma,   120 
sorcery,  8,  173 
Soshyos,  286-289 
Sotion,  81,  173 

Space,   personified,   see   Thwasha 
Spandarmad,  see  Spenta  Armaiti 
Spazga  (Phi.  Spazg),  172,  268 
spells,  holy,   115-118 
Spenishta  Mainyu,  24,  86 
Spenjhaghri,   171 
Spenta     Armaiti      (Phi.     Spandar- 

mad),  37-39,  94,  95,  233,  234 
Spenta  Mamyu  (Phi.  Spena  Menu), 

24,  25,  85,  86,  225,  337,  338 
Spentotema  Mainyu,  24,  25,  86 
Spiegel,  Fr.,   141,  334 
Sraosha   (Phi.  Srosh),  41,  42,   loi- 

103,  238 
Sroshocharan,    275,    276 
Star  Region,  heaven  of,  276 
Strabo,  8r,  134,  135,  140,  186 
Strymon,  98 
Sufism,   316 
Sumer,  73 

sun,    deified,    126,    127 
Sun  Region,  heaven  of,  276 
Sur    Chashmih,    268 


Tabari,  199,  201,  211 
Tacitus,   185 


Takhma    Urupi    (Phi.    Tahmuras), 
called    demon-binder,   8 
ruled     over     the     demons     and 

faines,   162,   173,   174 
sacrificed  unto  Vayu,  6,  133 
subjugated  Angra  Mainyu,  255 
Tanapuhar,  275,  276 
Tansar,  collects  the  Avestan  texts 
192 
on  Fate,  208 

on    law    regarding    the    heretics, 
209 

Taromaiti     (Phi.     Taromat),     167, 
264 

Taurvi    (Phi.   Tairev),   167,  265 

Tell   el-Maskhutah,   73 

temple,  at  Jerusalem,  73,  200 

Theopompus,  157,   181,   195 

Theosophical  movement  among  the 
Parsis,  352-366 

Thraetaona,      king,      bound      Azhi 
Dahaka,   175 
his  Fravashi  invoked  against  dis- 
eases, 147 
rendered       mortal       by       Angra 

Mainyu,  257 
sacrificed    unto    Ardvi    Sura.    6, 

138 
sacrificed    unto    Ashi    Vanghuhi, 

6,.  138 
sacrificed  unto  Drvaspa,  7 
sacrificed  unto  Vayu,  6,  133 

Thrita,   7,   120,   138 

Thwasha,  152 

Time,   Boundless,   151,  152,  340 

Tiridates,  185 

Tishtrya    (Phi.    Tishtar),    129-131, 
241,  242 

Tower  of  Silence,  176,  319,  324 

truth,   Mithra  and   Rashnu,   guard- 
ians of,  107,  III 

Turanians,    spread   of   Zoroastrian- 
ism  among  the,  12 

Tusa  (Phi.  Tus),  138,  288 

U 

Uda,  268 

Ukhshyat-ereta,   285 
Ukhshyat-nemangh,    286 
Ulama-i  Islam,  301 
Umayyads,  193,  299 
urine   of   cattle,  309,   350,   362,   363 
Ursa  Major,   132 
Urvatadnar,    288 

Usa  Kavi  (Phi.  Kaus),  flies  in  the 
sky,  175,  316 

misled  by  Eshm,  266 

rendered     mortal     by     Ahriman, 

257 
sacrificed  unto  Vayu,  6,   138 


INDEX 


383 


Ushah,    128,    129 
Ushas,  128 


W 


Vaesaka,  6 

Vafra  Navaza,  6,  138 

Vahishta  Ahu,  Best  Existence,  178, 
275 

Vahishta  Manah,  27,  50 

Vanant,   132 

Vandaremainish,   139 

Vanghapara,    178 

vangheiish        demana       manangho, 
abode  of  Good  Alind,  57 

Varedat-gadman,   288 

Varena    (modern   Gilan),  8 

Varun,  268 

Vayu,  a  demon,  172 

Vayu,  an  angel.   132-134 

Vazurgmitra,   207 

vegetarianism,     advocated     by     the 
Parsi  theosophists,  353,  354 
encouraged  by  Mazdak.  219 
practised  by  the  Parsi  mystics  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  316 

Verethraghna       (Phi.      Varahran), 
genius   of   victory,    112-114 

vidaeva-data,    law    against   the    de- 
mons, 163 

Viraf,    193,   255 

Vishtaspa    (Phi.    Gushtasp),    arch- 
angels   come    to   the   court   of, 
195,  229,  232 
consecrates  the  fire  Burzin  Mihr, 

42 
helps  to  open  the  Path  of  Right- 
eousness for  mankind,  91 
his   rule  was   the  golden  age  of 

Zoroastrianism,    284 
routs  Druj,  164 
sacrifices      unto       Ardvi       Sura, 

138 
sacrifices    unto    Ashi    Vanghuhi, 

123 
triumphs    over    the    demons,    162 
Zarathushtra     invokes     blessings 
upon,  89 

vishve  Devas,  all  divinities,  99 

Vispataurvi,   182 

vispe  daeva,  all  demons,  159 

Tj'ispe  druj,  all   demons,   164 

vispe  Yazata,  all  angels,  99 

Vistauru,    138 

Vivahvant,  7,   120 

Vizaresha    (Phi.  Vizarsh),  169,  266 

Vohu  Khshathra,  36 

Vohu  Manah  (Phi.  Vohuman),  27- 
30,  89,  90,  228-231,  355 

Vologeses  I,  185 

Vourukasha,  72,  132,  141,  146 

Vyambura,   172 


water,  Ardvi  Sura  Anahita,  the 
genius    of,    Haurvatat    guards, 

^^^,  41,  95,  234 

White  Lodge  of  the  Himalayan 
Brothers,  356 

wickedness,  see  Druj 

wind,   personified,   see  Vayu 

wisdom,  see  Chisti  and  Vohu 
Manah 

Worst  Existence,  180,  279 


Xenophon,  135 

Xerxes,     attributes     everything     to 
Auramazda,   83 
sacrifices       unto       the       Trojan 
Athena,  98 


Ya'qubi,   al-,   210,   211 

yatu,  8,  173 

Yazatas    (Phi.   Izads),  96-142,  236- 

242 
Yazdagard    I,    had    Christian    pro- 
clivities,  201,   202 
wedded  a  Jewish  consort,  200 
Yazdagard  II,  works  for  the  Zoro- 

astrian  propaganda,  198 
Yazdagard    III,    last   of   the   Zoro- 

astrian  kings  of  Persia,  297 
Yazdanians,   a   sect,   311,  312 
Yima    (Jamshid),    consecrated    the 
fire  Froba,  42 
dispelled  death  from  his  kingdom, 

.174,   175 
his    Fravashi    invoked    to    with- 
stand death,   147 
rendered  mortal  by  Ahriman,  257 
requested  by  Ahura  Mazda  to  be 

his  prophet,  4,  11 
sacrificed  unto  Ardvi  Sura,  6 
sacrificed    unto    Ashi    Vanghuhi, 

123 
sacrificed  unto  Drvaspa,  7 
sacrificed  unto  Vayu,  6,  133 
worked    for    the    betterment    of 
the  world,  284 
Yoishta-i  Fryana,  75,  138 


Zairicha    (Phi.  Zairich),  167,  265 
Zairi-vairi,  138 
Zal,    314 
Zam,  142 
Zamzama,  300 


384 


INDEX 


Zarathushtra  (Phi.  Zartusht)  Zoro- 
aster, approximate  date  of  his 
advent,    ii 
asked  by  Haoma  to  invoke  him, 

120 

besought  Mazda  and  Asha  to  let 
him  know  the  divine  will,  12 

brings  the  demons  to  his  feet, 
261 

chosen  by  the  heavenly  beings 
for  his  prophetic  mission,  30, 
45 

claimed  by  the  Parsi  theosophists 
to  be  an  Amshaspand  incarnate, 
366 

creation  rejoiced  at  the  birth  of, 
II 

established    the    Law    of    Right- 
eousness  upon  earth,   30 
.    exhorted  by  Vayu  to  invoke  him, 
17,   133 

first  mortal  to  invoke  the  arch- 
angels, 88 

his  forerunners,  4 

his  message  of  Hope,  63,  371 

implored  Asha  to  grant  strength 
to  his  disciples,  30 

implored  Mazda  for  help,  23 

invoked  Ardvi  Sura  to  gain 
Vishtaspa  as  a  convert,  138, 
139 


is    protected    by    the    archangels 

at  birth,  228,  229 
lays  the  foundation  of  the  King- 
dom of  Mazda,  36 
longs    for  a  vision  of  Asha,  30, 

31 
longs  to  behold  Vohu  Manah,  2^ 
longs  to  see  Sraosha,  41 
sacrifices    unto    Ashi    Vanghuhi, 

123 
seeks  Asha's  wealth  of  righteous- 
ness, 31 
seeks  communion  with  Mazda,  22 
seeks  Mazda's  help,  28 
seeks  revelation  from  Mazda,  20 
stupefies       and       routs       Angra 

Mainyu,   158,    i6r,  256 
submits    to    ordeals    in    heaven, 
227 
Zaredasht  Afshar,  314 
Zarman,  268 
Zarvanites,  203-205,  365 
Zaurva,   172 
Zeus,   156 
Zindah  Rud,  314 
Zohak,  see  Azhi  Dahaka 
Zoroastrianism,    11-13,    72-75,    198- 

202,  323-325,  367,  368 
Zota,  293 

Zrvan  Akarana,    151,   152,  364,   365 
Zrvan  Daregho-khvadhata,  151,  152 


Date  Due 


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